Differential effects of hypnosis,biofeedback training,and trophotropic responses on anxiety,ego strength,and locus of control

Pretested 60 college students on three scales: The IPAT Anxiety Scale, the Barron Ego-strength scale, and the Rotter I-E scale. The Ss then were assigned randomly to one of four treatment groups designated: Hypnotic treatment, biofeedback treatment, trophotropic treatment, and control. Three of these groups met separately for 60 minutes once a week for 8 weeks. The control group did not meet during this time. During the sessions, each group was trained in a different technique for self-regulation. At the end of the 8-week period the scales were readministered to all groups. A series of covariance analyses indicated that hypnosis was a more effective self-regulatory technique for lowering anxiety levels when compared to biofeedback or trophotropic response procedures. With regard to increasing ego strength, both the hypnotic training group and the biofeedback training group proved to be significant. No significant difference was found between the experimental and control groups on the I-E scores.     

Sequence effects of relaxation training, EMG, and temperature biofeedback on anxiety, symptom report, and self-concept

Assessed the effects of particular treatment combinations of relaxation training, temperature, and EMG biofeedback on state-trait anxiety, symptom report, and self-concept. The four groups received one of the following sequences: (a) relaxation training, temperature, and EMG biofeedback; (b) temperature, EMG biofeedback, and relaxation; (c) temperature followed by EMG biofeedback; (d) EMG biofeedback followed by temperature. A sample of 37 volunteers participated in 16 20-minute training sessions over an 11-week period, which totaled 800 appointments. Training was found equally effective for decreasing frontalis EMG and increasing finger skin temperature, regardless of sequence. Most substantial improvement occurred after 8 sessions, whereas little improvement was found after 16 sessions. Each group became increasingly homogeneous over time on all measures.     

Heart rate changes associated with EMG and alpha biofeedback

Physiological concomitants of relaxation are needed to characterize objectively the response to biofeedback training. Ss (N = 30) received either alpha, EMG, or no biofeedback training. Heart rate, EMG, and alpha activity were measured in all groups. Increases in alpha and decreases in EMG were noted in their respective feedback groups. Heart rate, however, was not related systematically to these changes, and no significant changes in heart rate occurred in any group.     

Comparison of Frontal EMG Biofeedback and Several Types of Relaxation Instructions in Reducing Multiple Indices of Arousal

During the training phase, 96 subjects were given one of four types of relaxation instructions (single instructions, repeated instructions, relaxation training, no instructions) and in addition either did or did not receive frontal EMG biofeedback training. Results indicated that each of the instructions and biofeedback procedures were equally effective in reducing frontal EMG, but that none of these procedures had any effect on subjective anxiety or autonomic indices of arousal (pulse rate, skin temperature, and finger pulse volume). During the generalization/stress phase, subjects were threatened with electric shock and were told to apply the relaxation techniques they learned during the training phase even though no additional instructions and/ or biofeedback training would be provided. To assess the effectiveness of the shock manipulation, a no-threat control group was included. Results indicated that: a) the shock manipulation was effective in increasing arousal, b) previous instructions and/or biofeedback were equally effective in reducing frontal EMG levels, but that c) only relaxation training was consistently effective in reducing subjective and autonomic indices of arousal. These findings: a) suggest that in stressful situations, relaxation training may be more effective than either EMG biofeedback or simple relaxation instructions in producing a general relaxation effect as opposed to a specific EMG effect; and b) indicate the importance of assessing the effectiveness of relaxation procedures during stressful situations during which subjects’ levels of arousal are elevated above resting baseline levels.     

Single- and successive-site EMG training in responding to anticipated pain

In a comparison among relaxation procedures, 32 college students were assigned to four groups of equal size. Electromyographic response training was given with biofeedback (EMG training) on the forehead (frontal area) alone, on the frontal area, neck (sternomastoid), and forearm areas in succession, or on these three sites in conjunction with recorded relaxation instructions used at home. Relative to a control group, which received no training, the three biofeedback-trained groups maintained lower EMG levels on the frontal and sternomastoid sites, and the group provided with the relaxation instructions plus EMG training showed lower skin conductance levels. These patterns were generally maintained during the presentation of a stimulus (stressor) that ostensibly signaled an impending electric shock. Other measures, including peripheral temperatures and self-reported anxiety, also showed effects consistent with the stressor presentations but did not differentiate the groups. The results are discussed in terms of common clinical relaxation procedures, an alternative procedure for training several sites simultaneously, and implications for models of EMG training and arousal.This paper summarizes a portion of the data originally presented in a masters thesis by the first author (Diaz, 1982).     

An exploratory study of state-trait anxiety as a function of automated relaxation training,desired changes and drinking behavior

Fifty-two VA domiciliary residents were given four sessions of tape-recorded relaxation training in small groups. The State-Trait Anxiety Scale was administered before the first and last training sessions. The experimental group's mean state anxiety decreased from Test I to Test II, but a control group's mean increased (p<0.025). Both groups decreased in trait anxiety over time (p<0.001). A significant effect within the experimental group was that 9 residents with disciplinary problems due to intoxication during the training period increased in mean state anxiety, while the remainder of the group decreased. Experimental Ss who initially desired many trait changes decreased mean trait anxiety more from Test I to Test II than did the rest of the experimental group (p<0.025).     

Relaxation Training and Biofeedback in the Reduction of Reducation Muscle Tension

To assess the comparative effectiveness of frontalis electromygraphic (E M G) biofeedback and relaxation instructions in reducing frontalis EMG levels, 101 male and female university students were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: 1) frontalis EMG biofeedback (variable frequency auditory feedback). 2) passive relaxation instruct inns (instructions to attend to and relax mustiest. 3) active relaxation instructions tensing and relaxing exercises), 4) false feedback, and 5l no treatment control. In a one-session design, subjects receiving biofeedback and passive relaxation instructions demonstrated the greatest decrement in frontalis EMG level. The relationships between decrements in frontalis EMG level and sex, baseline EMG and manifest anxiety are discussed.     

Training and Transfer of Training Effects in EMG Biofeedback Assisted Muscular Relaxation

Twenty-two normal adults participated in an electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback experiment designed to test if the feedback stimulus is necessary in obtaining EMG reductions during typical laboratory procedures, and if prior training on one muscle facilitates the training of a second muscle. One group of subjects received forearm feedback training followed by frontalis training. A second group received training in the reverse order. Two control groups relaxed first on their own followed by either forearm or frontalis training. Attention was directed toward motivating control subjects to perform maximally during relaxation without feedback. Heart and respiration rates and skin conductance and temperature were also recorded. Both trained and untrained subjects produced significant EMG reductions but did not differ from each other; nor did a transfer of training effect emerge. No differences resulted between feedback and non-feedback conditions for the other physiological measures or for changes in state anxiety. These data compromise somewhat the previous demonstrations of EMG biofeedback “learning,” and are unsupportive of EMG biofeedback as a general relaxation training technique.     

Cognitive and Somatic Events Associated With Discriminative Changes in Heart Rate

In Experiment 1, 23 males were given instructions to think about anxiety-provoking cognitive events (n= 12) or relaxing cognitive events (n= 11) during 20 30-sec training trials. Significant pretrial-to-trial increases in heart rate were noted during anxiety instructions and significant pretrial-to-trial decreases in heart rate were detected during relaxation instructions. In Experiment 2,39 males were again given instructions to think about anxiety-provoking events (n= 19) or relaxing events (n= 20) during 20 30-sec training trials. In addition, half of the subjects in each of these instructional conditions were given digital heart rate feedback consistent with their instructions (e.g., were reinforced for heart rate increases during anxiety instructions), whereas half of the subjects in each instructional condition were given feedback inconsistent with their instructions (e.g., were reinforced for heart rate decreases during anxiety instructions). As in Experiment 1, significant pretrial-to-trial increases in heart rate occurred during anxiety instructions and significant pretrial-to-trial decreases in heart rate were noted during relaxation instructions. The type of feedback which subjects received had no effect on the heart rate changes. The heart rate changes in both experiments were generally accompanied by parallel changes in respiratory rate but not by changes in chin muscle tension. It appears that cognitive events can produce increases and decreases in heart rate which are comparable in magnitude to those noted during biofeedback.     

The use of stress inoculation training in the reduction of public speaking anxiety

Reported results of three separate speech anxiety treatment studies that used stress inoculation training (SIT). Ss (N = 62) were students in introductory speech classes who reported speech anxiety. Treatment consisted of variations of SIT that used a recently proposed educational rationale that allowed for maximal treatment flexibility. Anxiety measurement involved self-report while the S was giving in-class speeches and ratings of anxiety behaviors. Results revealed that treated Ss improved significantly in self-reported anxiety and self-efficacy and that all Ss improved on rated anxiety behaviors. Rival hypotheses for these results are presented and discussed.     

Electromyograph Biofeedback: Generalization and the Relative Effects of Feedback, Instructions, and Adaptation

The present research describes two experiments. The first experiment examined training conditions designed to enhance generalization during electromyograph (EMG) biofeedback. Twelve female and 12 male subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: frontalis EMG biofeedback; frontalis, forearm extensor and masseter biofeedback; frontalis, forearm extensor and semispinalis/splenius biofeedback; and a no-feedback (instructions only) condition. EMG and heart rate were monitored during 3 training sessions. Although reliable decreases in EMG and heart rate were obtained, no differential effect of single- versus multiple-muscle biofeedback was observed; nor, indeed, were differences between biofeedback and no-feedback apparent. A second experiment was conducted to determine whether EMG and heart rate reductions reflected a general relaxation response or were simply due to the effects of adaptation. Twenty-four female subjects were randomly assigned to either a frontalis EMG biofeedback, a no-feedback or an adaptation control condition. Results indicated that decreases in frontalis EMG levels were due to the instructions to relax whereas heart rate decreases were attributable to adaptation. Equivalence between biofeedback and no-feedback conditions was again apparent. It was concluded that this finding raises serious questions about the presumed critical role of the feedback signal in EMG biofeedback.     

A Comparison of Auditory and Visual Feedback in Biofeedback Assisted Muscular Relaxation Training

This study compared the efficacy of auditory and visual feedback in electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback assisted relaxation training of the frontalis muscle.Twenty-eight subjects, divided into 4 groups matched on baseline frontalis EMG levels and trait anxiety, received 7 training sessions each under one of the following conditions: (1) auditory feedback-eyes closed; (2) auditory feedback-eyes open; (3) visual feedback; or (4) no feedback-eyes closed. The group who received auditory feedback with the eyes closed manifested significant lowering of EMG over session compared to no significant reduction in EMG for the other three groups. EMG changes failed to correlate significantly with changes in self reports of subjective relaxation derived from pre-to-post session state anxiety test data. The possibility that the ineffectiveness of visual feedback in this study may be specific to the frontalis muscle was discussed and the need for further research in several areas was stressed.     

In vivo distraction-coping in the treatment of test anxiety

Two groups (N = 19) of clinically test anxious college students received a common core treatment program of cognitive behavior therapy, progressive muscular relaxation training, and thermal biofeedback assisted relaxation training. The experimental group received an additional treatment component that consisted of in vivo distraction-coping training designed to facilitate focusing attentional processes onto task relevant variables and away from external distractors and dysfunctional self-statements. The overall efficacy of the program was demonstrated with reductions in test, trait and state anxiety, and increases in the rationality of personal belief systems. Performance on an anagram solution task conducted under highly distracting conditions and evaluative interactions was improved significantly, as was motoric performance on a manual dexterity task. In vivo distraction-coping was not found to result in more efficacious treatment as measured by selfreport and performance variables.     

Anxiety and Feedback as Factors in Operant Heart Rate Control

Thirty-three Ss were chosen on the basis of their Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores. Eleven Ss were assigned to each of three groups, low anxiety (LA), medium anxiety (MA), and high anxiety (HA). The study was then carried out to determine the relationships between manifest anxiety, amount of feedback, and heart rate (HR) control. Each S attempted to synchronize his HR with a series of clicks so that each heartbeat (R wave) would occur within .2 sec after a click. Each S was tested alternately with non-augmented biofeedback (NAF), and with visually augmented feedback (AF) during several test periods. Overall, Ss were found to be able to produce a significantly higher than chance percentage of heartbeats in the .2 sec interval in spite of the fact that HA Ss had a negative mean HR control score. MA Ss' mean score was significantly higher than that of the HA Ss. Different physiological characteristics were found to be significantly correlated with successful HR control depending upon which anxiety group S was in. No significant difference was found between NAF and AF conditions.     

The effects of EMG biofeedback and relaxation training on primary dysmenorrhea

Fifteen dysmenorrhea sufferers received relaxation training with EMG biofeedback, relaxation training with no feedback, or no treatment. Participants who received biofeedback training did not differ from participants who received relaxation training in their ability to maintain a reduced level of EMG activity prior to the onset of menstruation. On the first day of menstruation, those receiving biofeedback training were able to maintain reduced EMG activity, whereas those receiving relaxation training showed an elevated level of EMG activity. Subjective reports indicated that the symptoms of dysmenorrhea improved for the biofeedback group during training but did not improve for the relaxation or control groups. Suggestions for further research are noted.The authors wish to thank Jerry Curtis for his invaluable assistance in setting up and maintaining the laboratory facilities and computer programs used to conduct this study.     

The effect of indefinite pretrial incarceration on the anxiety level of an urban jail population

This study investigated the effect of indefinite incarceration on the anxiety levels of males (N = 60) held in a large metropolitan county jail. The IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (Self Analysis Form) was administered to 60 male Ss (18 to 26 years of age) at intervals of 1 week and 8 weeks after incarceration. An analysis of variance, one-way with repeated measures, on the matching IPAT Anxiety Scale scroes revealed a highly significant increase in anxiety (p < 0.001) form 1 week to 8 weeks. A Newman-Keuls posttest comparison also indicated that anxiety levels rose significantly (p < 0.001). The results suggested that indefinite pretrial incarceration can increase anxiety to a level of psychological morbidity. The possible effect of this finding upon the guarantee of a right to speedy trial was discussed.     

Effects of anxiety and depression on anagram performance,ratings of cognitive interference,and the negative subjective evaluation of performance

Studied whether any differential effects of anxiety and depression could be discerned in the anagram performance, ratings of cognitive interference, and subjective evaluation of anagram performance displayed by college students. Seventy-two undergraduates (36 male, 36 female) were selected to participate in the present experiment on the basis of their scores on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (A-Trait) and/or the Beck Depression Inventory. Results showed that depressed-anxious and anxious Ss displayed a tendency toward reduced efficiency in anagram solution, rated themselves as having experienced significantly more cognitive interference during the anagram task, and displayed a significantly more negative subjective evaluation of their anagram performance than did control Ss. Quasi-F analyses revealed that these results were related significantly to the anxiety factor common to both depressed-anxious and anxious Ss. Implications of these results for future research on anxiety and depression were discussed.     

Psychological mindedness,intelligence, and item subtlety endorsement patterns on the MMPI

Investigated the relationship between psychological mindedness (measured by the Psychological Mindedness [Py] scale of the California Psychological Inventory [CPI]), intelligence (estimated by American College Test [ACT] scores), and item subtlety endorsement patterns of Ss asked to answer the MMPI under standard, fake-good, and fake-bad response sets. Male (N = 30) and female (N = 30) undergraduate students completed the Py scale and two MMPI protocols–one under standard test-taking instructions and the other under either a fake-good or a fake-bad set with order of administration and sex counterbalanced. Under the standard response set, Ss who scored high on the CPI-Py endorsed more very subtle and somewhat subtle items and fewer neutral, somewhat obvious, and very obvious items than Ss who scored low on this scale. Intellectual ability was not related to the endorsement of subtle or obvious items under standard or fake-good response sets. Under instructions to fake-bad, more intelligent individulals endorsed fewer somewhat subtle items and more very obvious items than less intelligent individuals. These results were discussed in reference to the utility of subtle items as unobtrusive measures of personality or as indicators of certain response sets.     

An Experimental Test of Assumptions Relating to the Use of Electromyographic Biofeedbatk as a General Relaxation Training Technique

Twenty-eight normal adults participated in an experimental test of two assumptions underlying the use of electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback as a general relaxation training technique: (1) that trained EMG reduction in one muscle generalizes to untrained muscles; and (2) that subjective feelings of relaxation are related to EMG reduction. An experimental group received 5 sessions, during the middle 3 of which EMG biofeedback training was offered on the frontalis muscle. Throughout all sessions, EMG recordings were also taken from the forearm and lower leg, and ratings of subjective relaxation feelings were obtained at regular intervals. A control group, matched with the experimental group on baseline frontalis EMG, received 5 similar sessions without feedback. Employing a maximum p of .05, the results revealed no evidence of generalization of EMG reduction from the frontalis to the untrained sites, nor any tendency for successful frontalis EMG reduction to result in increased feelings of relaxation beyond what was obtainable from relaxing without the benefit of training. The results were interpreted as suggesting that EMG biofeedback cannot yet be accepted as a viable general relaxation training technique.     

A Multiple-Response Evaluation of EMG Biofeedback Performance During Training and Stress-Induction Conditions

The present study evaluated multiple system physiological responding which accompanied EMG biofeedback performance under two conditions—during EMG biofeedback training sessions, and during the utilization of that training in the presence of a stressor. Twelve subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups: 1) an EMG biofeedback group, or 2) a false-EMG biofeedback group. During the training sessions, significant frontalis EMG decreases were produced by the biofeedback group. This performance was associated with a concomitant decrease in heart rate and respiration rate, but an increase in skin conductance level. The biofeedback group was also able to maintain a low level of EMG activity during a stress-induction procedure. However, this low level of activity did not generalize to other physiological responses. Heart rate and skin conductance levels both increased, which coincided with the subjects' self-report of anxiety during this phase of the study. These data clearly demonstrate that single-system arousal reduction produced by EMG biofeedback training, rather than producing cross-system arousal reduction, produces specificity of a single response change under a stress-inducing situation.