Nanostructure of liquid crystalline matrix determines in vitro sustained release and in vivo oral absorption kinetics for hydrophilic model drugs

Nanostructured lipid-based liquid crystalline systems have been proposed as sustained oral drug delivery systems, but the interplay between their intrinsic release rates, susceptibility to digestive processes, and the manner in which these effects impact on their application in vivo, are not well understood. In this study, two different bicontinuous cubic phases, prepared from glyceryl monooleate and phytantriol, and a reversed hexagonal phase formed by addition of a small amount of vitamin E to phytantriol (Q(II GMO), Q(II PHYT) and H(II PHYT+VitEA), respectively) were prepared. The release kinetics for a number of model hydrophilic drugs with increasing molecular weights (glucose, Allura Red and FITC-dextrans) was determined in in vitro release experiments. Diffusion-controlled release was observed in all cases as anticipated from previous studies with liquid crystalline systems, and it was discovered that the release rates of each drug decreased as the matrix was changed from Q(II GMO) to Q(II PHYT) to H(II PHYT+VitEA). Formulations containing (14)C-glucose, utilized as a rapidly absorbed marker of drug release, were then orally administered to rats to determine the relative in vivo absorption rates from the different formulations. The results showed a trend by which the rate of absorption of (14)C-glucose followed that observed in the corresponding in vitro release studies, providing the first indication that the nanostructure of these materials may provide the ability to tailor the absorption kinetics of hydrophilic drugs in vivo, and hence form the basis of a new drug delivery system.     

Non-phospholipid vesicles as carriers for peptides and proteins: production, characterization and stability studies

Liquid crystalline phases that are stable in excess water, formed using lipids such as glyceryl monooleate (GMO) and oleyl glycerate (OG), are known to provide a sustained release matrix for poorly water soluble drugs in vitro, yet there has been no report of the use of these materials to impart oral sustained release behaviour in vivo. In the first part of this study, in vitro lipolysis experiments were used to compare the digestibility of GMO with a second structurally related lipid, oleyl glycerate, which was found to be less susceptible to hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase than GMO. Subsequent oral bioavailability studies were conducted in rats, in which a model poorly water soluble drug, cinnarizine (CIN), was administered orally as an aqueous suspension, or as a solution in GMO or OG. In the first bioavailability study, plasma samples were taken over a 30 h period and CIN concentrations determined by HPLC. Plasma CIN concentrations after administration in the GMO formulation were only sustained for a few hours after administration while for the OG formulation, the plasma concentration of cinnarizine was at its highest level 30 h after dosing, and appeared to be increasing. A second study in which CIN was again administered in OG, and plasma samples taken for 120 h, revealed a T_max for CIN in rats of 36 h and a relative oral bioavailability of 344% when compared to the GMO formulation (117%) and the aqueous suspension formulation (assigned a nominal bioavailability of 100%). The results indicate that lipids that form liquid crystalline structures in excess water, may have application as an oral sustained release delivery system, providing they are not digested rapidly on administration.     

In vitro drug release mechanism and drug loading studies of cubic phase gels

Glyceryl monooleate/water cubic phase systems were investigated as drug delivery systems, using salicylic acid as a model drug. The liquid crystalline phases formed by the glyceryl monooleate (GMO)/water systems were characterized by polarizing microscopy. In vitro drug release studies were performed and the influences of initial water content, swelling and drug loading on the drug release properties were evaluated. Water uptake followed second-order swelling kinetics. In vitro release profiles showed Fickian diffusion control and were independent on the initial water content and drug loading, suggesting GMO cubic phase gels suitability for use as drug delivery system.     

Hyperbranched polymers as drug carriers: microencapsulation and release kinetics

The aim of this work was to study the feasibility of hyperbranched polymers as drug carriers by employing different microparticle formation methods and the influence of loading methods on release kinetics. Commercially available hyperbranched polyester (Perstorp) and three polyesteramides (DSM) were loaded with the pharmaceutical acetaminophen. The gas antisolvent precipitation (GAS), the coacervation, and the particles from gas saturated solutions (PGSS) are among conventional processes that were used to prepare microparticles of drug-loaded hyperbranched polyesters for the first time. For preparing solid dispersions of drug-loaded hyperbranched polyesteramides the solvent method was applied. Infrared (IR) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) studies suggest that acetaminophen is partly dissolved in the polymer matrix and partly crystallized outside the polymer matrix. For acetaminophen-loaded polyesters prepared by the GAS method, the presence of free drugs is predominant when compared to microparticles prepared by the coacervation method. This event disappears for microparticles prepared by the PGSS method. Moreover, the release of drug from drug-loaded Bol-GAS is biphasic, where the initial burst (48%), indicating the presence of unincorporated drugs, is followed by a slow-release phase, suggesting the diffusion of drug through polymer matrices. The release of drugs from drug-loaded Bol-PGSS do not show this behavior since the drug is better dissolved or dispersed in polymer matrices. In the case of drug-loaded polyesteramides, coevaporates prepared from 3 hyperbranched structures (H1690, H1200, and H1500) using the solvent method result in different release kinetics. The hydrophobic characteristic of hyperbranched polyesteramide H1500 shows the biphasic release kinetic whereas the drug released from hydrophilic matrices H1690 and H1200 exhibits fast release comparable to that of pure drug.     

Hyperbranched Polymers as Drug Carriers: Microencapsulation and Release Kinetics

The aim of this work was to study the feasibility of hyperbranched polymers as drug carriers by employing different microparticle formation methods and the influence of loading methods on release kinetics. Commercially available hyperbranched polyester (Perstorp) and three polyesteramides (DSM) were loaded with the pharmaceutical acetaminophen. The gas antisolvent precipitation (GAS), the coacervation, and the particles from gas saturated solutions (PGSS) are among conventional processes that were used to prepare microparticles of drug-loaded hyperbranched polyesters for the first time. For preparing solid dispersions of drug-loaded hyperbranched polyesteramides the solvent method was applied. Infrared (IR) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) studies suggest that acetaminophen is partly dissolved in the polymer matrix and partly crystallized outside the polymer matrix. For acetaminophen-loaded polyesters prepared by the GAS method, the presence of free drugs is predominant when compared to microparticles prepared by the coacervation method. This event disappears for microparticles prepared by the PGSS method. Moreover, the release of drug from drug-loaded Bol-GAS is biphasic, where the initial burst (48%), indicating the presence of unincorporated drugs, is followed by a slow-release phase, suggesting the diffusion of drug through polymer matrices. The release of drugs from drug-loaded Bol-PGSS do not show this behavior since the drug is better dissolved or dispersed in polymer matrices. In the case of drug-loaded polyesteramides, coevaporates prepared from 3 hyperbranched structures (H1690, H1200, and H1500) using the solvent method result in different release kinetics. The hydrophobic characteristic of hyperbranched polyesteramide H1500 shows the biphasic release kinetic whereas the drug released from hydrophilic matrices H1690 and H1200 exhibits fast release comparable to that of pure drug.     

Evaluating the link between self-assembled mesophase structure and drug release

Lipid-based liquid crystalline materials are of increasing interest for use as drug delivery systems. The intricate nanostructure of the reversed bicontinuous cubic (V₂) and inverse hexagonal (H₂) liquid crystal matrices have been shown to provide diffusion controlled release of actives of varying size and polarity. In this study, we extend the understanding of release to other self-assembled phases, the micellar cubic phase (I₂) and inverse micelles (L₂). The systems are comparable as they were all prepared from the one lipid, glyceryl monooleate (GMO), which sequentially forms all four phases with increasing hexadecane (HD) content in excess water. Phase identity was confirmed by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). SAXS data indicated that four mesophases were formed with increasing HD content at 25 °C: V₂ phase (Pn3m space group) formed at 0-4% (w/w) HD, H₂ phase formed at 4-25% (w/w) HD, I₂ phase (Fd3m space group) formed at 25-40% (w/w) HD and finally L₂ phase formed at >40% (w/w) HD. Analogous compositions using phytantriol rather than GMO as the core lipid did not produce the I₂ phase, with only V₂ to H₂ to L₂ transitions being apparent with increasing HD concentration. In order to relate the liquid crystal phase structure to drug release rate, in vitro release tests were conducted by incorporating radio-labelled glucose as a model hydrophilic drug into the four GMO-based mesophases. It was found that the drug release followed first-order diffusion kinetics and was fastest from V₂ followed by L₂, H₂, and I₂. Drug release was shown to be significantly faster from bicontinuous cubic phase than the other mesophases, indicating that the state of the water compartments, whether open or closed, has a great influence on the rate of drug release. It is envisioned that liquid crystalline mesophases with slower release characteristics will more likely have potential applications as sustained release drug delivery systems, and hence that the bicontinuous cubic phase is not necessarily the best choice for a sustained release matrix.     

Kinetic characterization of swelling of liquid crystalline phases of glyceryl monooleate

Research in this paper focuses on the kinetic evaluation of swelling of the liquid crystalline phases of glyceryl monooleate (GMO). Swelling of the lamellar and cubic liquid crystalline phases of GMO was studied using two in vitro methods, a total immersion method and a Franz cell method. The swelling of the lamellar phase and GMO having 0 %w/w initial water content was temperature dependent. The swelling ratio was greater at 20 degrees C than 37 degrees C. The water uptake increased dramatically with decreasing initial water content of the liquid crystalline phases. The swelling rates obtained using the Franz cell method with a moist nylon membrane to mimic buccal drug delivery situation were slower than the total immersion method. The swelling was studied by employing first-order and second-order swelling kinetics. The swelling of the liquid crystalline phases of GMO could be described by second-order swelling kinetics. The initial stage of the swelling (t < 4 h) followed the square root of time relationship, indicating that this model is also suitable for describing the water uptake by the liquid crystalline matrices. These results obtained from the current study demonstrate that the swelling strongly depends on temperature, the initial water content of the liquid crystalline phases and the methodology employed for measuring the swelling of GMO.     

Cubic phase gels as drug delivery systems

Lipids have been used extensively for drug delivery in various forms such as liposomes, and solid-matrices. The focus of this review is evaluation of liquid crystalline cubic phases, spontaneously formed when amphiphilic lipids are placed in aqueous environment, for drug delivery. Cubic phases have an interesting thermodynamically stable structure consisting of curved bicontinuous lipid bilayer in three dimensions, separating two congruent networks of water channels. The unique structure of cubic phase has been extensively studied using various spectroscopic techniques and their resemblance to biomembranes has prompted many scientists to study behavior of proteins in cubic phases. The ability of cubic phase to incorporate and control release of drugs of varying size and polar characteristics, and biodegradability of lipids make it an interesting drug delivery system for various routes of administration. Cubic phases have been shown to deliver small molecule drugs and large proteins by oral and parenteral routes in addition to local delivery in vaginal and periodontal cavity. A number of different proteins in cubic phase appear to retain their native conformation and bioactivity, and are protected from chemical and physical inactivation perhaps due to the reduced activity of water and biomembrane-like structure of cubic phase. Release of drugs from cubic phase typically show diffusion controlled release from a matrix as indicated by Higuchi's square root of time release kinetics. Incorporation of drug in cubic phase can cause phase transformation to lamellar or reversed hexagonal phase depending on the polarity and concentration of the drug, which may affect the release profile. Biodegradability, phase behavior, ability to deliver drugs of varying sizes and polarity and the ability to enhance the chemical and/or physical stability of incorporated drugs and proteins make the cubic phase gel an excellent candidate for use as a drug delivery matrix. However, shorter release duration and the extremely high viscosity may limit its use to specific applications such as periodontal, mucosal, vaginal and short acting oral and parenteral drug delivery.     

Hexosomes formed from glycerate surfactants--formulation as a colloidal carrier for irinotecan

A new class of amphiphiles with a glycerate headgroup, recently shown to form reverse hexagonal phase in excess water, have been dispersed to form Hexosome dispersions comprising sub-200 nm particles retaining the internal nanostructure of the parent H(II) phase. The application of these novel materials to the development of a new injectable formulation of irinotecan was investigated. The formulation of irinotecan with a small percentage of oleic acid in oleyl glycerate permitted a clinically relevant dose of irinotecan to be dissolved in the glycerate surfactant and dispersed in aqueous medium to form an injectable particle-based dose form of irinotecan. Importantly, incorporation of irinotecan into Hexosomes at neutral pH did not result in conversion from the active lactone to the inactive carboxylate form on storage, and is hence a promising alternative to the current low pH formulation of irinotecan required to inhibit this conversion. Although release of irinotecan from the Hexosomes was shown to be virtually instantaneous from the Hexosomes on substantial dilution, the retention of the drug in lactone form at neutral pH demonstrates a potential application of these novel nanostructured particles in injectable drug delivery.     

Cubic liquid crystalline glyceryl monooleate matrices for oral delivery of enzyme

In situ cubic phase transforming system of glyceryl monooleate (GMO) has been prepared which offers protection to the metaloenzyme, seratiopeptidase (STP), in gastric environment and provides delayed and controlled release with no initial burst after oral administration. Effect of magnesium trisilicate (MTS) on floating, proteolytic activity and drug release was studied. Gelucire 43/01 was incorporated in the system to provide prolonged lag time. The drug-loaded matrices required 100 mg of MTS to overcome floatability of GMO matrix. Plain GMO matrices showed 85.3% loss of proteolytic activity in acidic medium, whereas matrices containing MTS showed retention of activity (111.6%). The hydrophobic nature of MTS induced formation of cubic phase at faster rate and the existence of cubic phase was confirmed by polarizing light microscopy. Furthermore, MTS provided alkaline microenvironment, which prevented acid-catalyzed hydrolysis and protein unfolding. The magnesium ions restored the activity of STP. The release of STP was decreased with increasing amount of MTS in the matrix. Gelucire did not affect proteolytic activity. The water uptake of matrices with gelucire was decelerated due to formation of hexagonal phase. However, the rate of STP release from these matrices was very slow due to incorporation of gelucire into lipid bilayers, which provided resistance to movement of STP. Thus, microenvironment-controlled in situ cubic phase transforming GMO matrices provided protection to STP and controlled release.     

Swellable matrices for controlled drug delivery: gel-layer behaviour, mechanisms and optimal performance

The majority of oral drug delivery systems (DDS) are matrix-based. Swellable matrices are monolithic systems prepared by compression of a powdered mixture of a hydrophilic polymer and a drug. Their success is linked to the established tabletting technology of manufacturing. Swellable matrix DDS must be differentiated from true swelling-controlled delivery systems. This review focuses on hydrophilic swellable matrix tablets as controlled DDS. Gel-layer behaviour, front movement and release are described to show the dependence of the release kinetics on the swelling behaviour of the system. In vivo behaviour of matrix systems is also considered.     

Effect of HLB of additives on the properties and drug release from the glyceryl monooleate matrices.

Glyceryl monooleate (GMO) is an amphiphilic surfactant, which as such can solubilize hydrophilic, lipophilic and amphiphilic drug molecules in its different polarity regions. Addition of additives with different polarities in GMO leads to change in phase behavior and related properties of GMO. Effect of the additives with different hydrophilic lipophilic balance (HLB; 1.5, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10 and 11) in GMO matrices on its phase transformation, rheological properties, mechanical properties, wetting and release behavior was investigated. Polarizing light microscopy showed that the GMO matrices incorporated with lower HLB additive (1.5, 3, 4 and 5) form cubic phase at higher rate while lamellar phase was prominent for matrices with additive of HLB 7, 10 and 11. The diametrical crushing strength and viscosity was decreased with increased HLB of additive. Lower HLB additives enhanced contact angle as compared to plain matrices and high HLB additives induced change in solid-liquid interface from hydrophobic to hydrophilic leading to decline in contact angle. Percent swelling of matrices was increased linearly with increase in HLB of additives. Tensiometric method was used for determination of bioadhesive strength of hydrated matrices and it was observed that matrices with additives of HLB 10 presented highest bioadhesion due to higher rate of hydration and formation of lamellar phase. As the HLB of additives in matrix increased, release was shifted from anomalous (non-Fickian) diffusion and/or partially erosion-controlled release to Fickian diffusion. Initial lag was observed for drug released from matrices with additive of HLB 1.5, 3, 4 and 5. Thus incorporation of the additives of different HLB changed molecular packing, which significantly affected drug release pattern.     

Effect of drug solubility and different excipients on floating behaviour and release from glyceryl monooleate matrices

Glycerol monooleate (GMO) matrix was found to be a gastro-retentive carrier system suitable for both polar and as well as non-polar drugs. Chlorpheniramine maleate (CPM) and diazepam (DZP) were used as model drugs. Effect of PEG 4000, PEG 10000, and stearic acid on floatability and release profile was studied. Water uptake increased with increase in the loading of polar drug (CPM) and decreased with non-polar drug (DZP). Similar effect was found to occur in case of drug release. PEGs increased the release up to certain concentration and decreased thereafter. Drug release decreased linearly with concentration of stearic acid. The type and extent of mesophases formed were significantly affected by the nature of drug, excipients and their concentration. Thus the selection of suitable excipients depending on polarity of drug, could help to modulate the floatability and release profile from GMO matrices.     

Liposome-based depot injection technologies

Liposomes have proven to be versatile carriers for the delivery of drugs. These carriers are biocompatible, since they are generally made from lipids commonly found in biologic systems and are biodegradable by the usual metabolic pathways. A sustained drug delivery system is useful when the efficacy of drugs is limited by the inability to maintain therapeutic concentrations. Furthermore, a depot delivery system can offer important advantages in the clinic, such as significantly reducing dose frequency and providing efficacy without toxicity. Because of their small size (<5μ.m), conventional liposomes (unilamellar and multilamellar) are limited in their ability to provide depot delivery of drugs when administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly. The small size of these liposomes results in relatively fast clearance from the injection site and a short duration of delivery, typically 1–4 days. Multivesicular liposomes (MVLs) are distinct from conventional liposomes in composition, structure, and size and are the only class of commercial liposomes that have demonstrated depot delivery of both small molecule and protein/peptide drugs. These MVLs are characterized by the presence of a continuous bilayer membrane, with numerous internal aqueous compartments that are contiguous and separated by bilayer septums. As a result of their larger size (median diameter typically 10–30μ.m), these MVLs are not rapidly cleared by tissue macrophages and can act as a drug depot providing slow release of drugs delivered through different routes of administration. Moreover, the biocompatibility and biodegradability of the MVL lipid matrix allows for the sustained delivery of drugs to sensitive areas. The unique architecture of MVLs provides high drug loading of water-soluble drugs, reasonable stability during storage, and control over the drug-release rate. Furthermore, the lipid composition of MVLs can be altered to deliver therapeutics over periods ranging from a few days to a month, in order to meet specific therapeutic needs. The capability of altering the rate of drug release from MVLs by varying the lipid composition provides a great deal of versatility for controlled delivery of a wide variety of therapeutics. This article reviews depot delivery with conventional liposomes, demonstrates through several examples the sustained depot delivery of small and macromolecular drugs using MVLs, and summarizes some novel delivery systems that combine liposomes with polymeric matrices and have the potential to expand the platform of liposomal depot delivery.     

Hydrophilic polymeric matrices for enhanced transdermal drug delivery

For many drugs with various chemical structures, delivery rates from the hydrophilic polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-polyethylene oxide (PEO) based pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) matrices of transdermal therapeutic systems (TTS) are higher compared to the hydrophobic TTS matrices. Delivery of propranolol, glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) and isosorbide dinitrate (ISDN) from the hydrophilic water soluble TTS matrix across human cadaver skin epidermis or skin-imitating polydimethylsiloxane-polycarbonate block copolymer Carbosil membrane in vitro is characterized by high rate values and zero-order drug delivery kinetics up to the point of 75–85% drug release from their initial contents in matrix. Both in vitro and in vivo drug delivery rates from the TTS hydrophilic diffusion matrix are controlled by the skin or membrane permeability and may be described by Fick's law. The contributions of various physicochemical determinants to the control of transdermal drug delivery kinetics are discussed. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of hydrophilic TTS matrix with propranolol, GTN and ISDN are described.     

A novel in situ gel for sustained drug delivery and targeting

The objective of this study was to develop a novel chitosan-glyceryl monooleate (GMO) in situ gel system for sustained drug delivery and targeting. The delivery system consisted of 3% (w/v) chitosan and 3% (w/v) GMO in 0.33M citric acid. In situ gel was formed at a biological pH. In vitro release studies were conducted in Sorensen's phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and drugs were analyzed either by HPLC or spectrophotometry. Characterization of the gel included the effect of cross-linker, determination of diffusion coefficient and water uptake by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Mucoadhesive property of the gel was evaluated in vitro using an EZ-Tester. Incorporation of a cross-linker (glutaraldehyde) retarded the rate and extent of drug release. The in vitro release can further be sustained by replacing the free drug with drug-encapsulated microspheres. Drug release from the gel followed a matrix diffusion controlled mechanism. Inclusion of GMO enhanced the mucoadhesive property of chitosan by three- to sevenfold. This novel in situ gel system can be useful in the sustained delivery of drugs via oral as well as parenteral routes.     

Graft copolymers of ethyl methacrylate on waxy maize starch derivatives as novel excipients for matrix tablets: drug release and fronts movement kinetics

A previous paper deals with the physicochemical and technological characterization of novel graft copolymers of ethyl methacrylate (EMA) on waxy maize starch (MS) and hydroxypropylstarch (MHS). The results obtained suggested the potential application of these copolymers as excipients for compressed non-disintegrating matrix tablets. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the mechanism governing drug release from matrix systems prepared with the new copolymers and anhydrous theophylline or diltiazem HCl as model drugs with different solubility. The influence of the carbohydrate nature, drying procedure and initial pore network on drug release kinetics was also evaluated. Drug release experiments were performed from free tablets. Radial drug release and fronts movement kinetics were also analysed, and several mathematical models were employed to ascertain the drug release mechanisms. The drug release markedly depends on the drug solubility and the carbohydrate nature but is practically not affected by the drying process and the initial matrix porosity. A faster drug release is observed for matrices containing diltiazem HCl compared with those containing anhydrous theophylline, in accordance with the higher drug solubility and the higher friability of diltiazem matrices. In fact, although diffusion is the prevailing drug release mechanism for all matrices, the erosion mechanism seems to have some contribution in several formulations containing diltiazem. A reduction in the surface exposed to the dissolution medium (radial release studies) leads to a decrease in the drug release rate, but the release mechanism is not essentially modified. The nearly constant erosion front movement confirms the behaviour of these systems as inert matrices where the drugs are released mainly by diffusion through the porous structure.     

Buccal permeation of [D-Ala(2), D-Leu(5)]enkephalin from liquid crystalline phases of glyceryl monooleate

The ex vivo buccal permeability of a [D-Ala(2), D-Leu(5)]enkephalin (DADLE) and glyceryl monooleate (GMO) was examined from the cubic and lamellar liquid crystalline phases of GMO and aqueous phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4, PBS) solution across excised porcine buccal mucosa mounted in a Franz cell. GMO was released in vitro from the liquid crystalline phases indicating the erosion of the liquid crystal matrices. GMO released from the liquid crystalline matrices permeated the porcine buccal mucosa with fluxes of 0.10+/-0.03 and 0.07+/-0.00%/cm(2) per h for the cubic and lamellar phases, respectively. The flux of DADLE (1.21+/-0.32 and 1. 15+/-0.11%/cm(2) per h for the cubic and lamellar phases, respectively) from the liquid crystalline phases was significantly enhanced by the GMO compared with PBS solution (0.43+/-0.08%/cm(2) per h) during the initial permeation phase (t<3 h). Our results suggest that the cubic and lamellar liquid crystalline phases can be considered as promising buccal drug carriers for peptide drugs as well as acting as permeation enhancers.     

Oral self-nanoemulsifying peptide drug delivery systems: impact of lipase on drug release

Abstract

It was the aim of this study to evaluate the impact of lipases on the release behaviour of a peptide drug from oral self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems. Octreotide was ion paired with the anionic surfactants deoxycholate, decanoate, oleate and dodecylsulphate. The lipophilic character of these complexes was characterised by determining the n-octanol/buffer pH 7.4 partition coefficient. In the following the most hydrophilic complex was incorporated in a likely lipase degradable self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) formulation containing a triglyceride (olive oil; Pharm.Eur.) and in a likely not lipase degradable SNEDDS containing lipids and surfactants without any ester bonds. After 1:100 dilutions in artificial intestinal fluid (AIF), the lipid droplets were characterised regarding size distribution. With these SNEDDS, drug release studies were performed in AIF with and without lipase. Results showed that the most hydrophobic complex can be formed with deoxycholate in an octreotide:anionic surfactant ratio of 1:5. Even 73.1?±?8.1% of it could be quantified in the n-octanol phase. SNEDDS containing octreotide | olive oil | cremophor EL | propylene glycol (2|57|38|3) and octreotide | liquid paraffin | Brij 35 | propylene glycol | ethanol (2|66.5|25|5|1.5) showed after dilution in AIF, a mean droplet size of 232?±?53?nm and 235?±?50?nm, respectively. Drug release studies showed a sustained release of octreotide out of these formulations for at least 24?h, whereas?>?80% of the drug was released within 2?h in the presence of lipase in the case of the triglyceride containing SNEEDS. In contrast the release profile from ester-free SNEDDS was not significantly altered (p?<?0.05) due to the addition of lipase providing evidence for the stability of this formulation towards lipases. According to these results, SNEDDS could be identified as a useful tool for sustained oral peptide delivery taking an enzymatic degradation by intestinal lipases into considerations.     

Phytantriol and glyceryl monooleate cubic liquid crystalline phases as sustained‐release oral drug delivery systems for poorly water‐soluble drugs II. In‐vivo evaluation

Objectives Lipid‐based liquid crystals formed from phytantriol (PHY) and glyceryl monooleate (GMO) retain their cubic‐phase structure on dilution in physiologically relevant simulated gastrointestinal media, suggesting their potential application as sustained‐release drug‐delivery systems for poorly water‐soluble drugs. In this study the potential of PHY and GMO to serve as sustained‐release lipid vehicles for a model poorly‐water‐soluble drug, cinnarizine, was assessed and compared to that of an aqueous suspension formulation. Methods Small‐angle X‐ray scattering was used to confirm the nanostructure of the liquid‐crystalline matrix in the presence of the selected model drug, cinnarizine. Oral bioavailability studies were conducted in rats, and disposition of lipid and drug in segments of the gastrointestinal tract was determined over time. Differences in the digestibility and stability of formulations under digestion conditions were investigated using an in‐vitro lipolysis model. Key findings The oral bioavailability of cinnarizine using the PHY formulation was 41%, compared to 19% for the GMO formulation and 6% for an aqueous suspension. The PHY formulation provided a T_max for cinnarizine of 33 h, with absorption apparent up to 55 h after administration. In contrast, the T_max for the GMO formulation was only 5 h. The PHY formulation was retained in the stomach for extended periods of time, with 56% of lipid remaining in the stomach after 24 h, in contrast to less than 1% of the GMO formulation after 8 h, suggesting that gastric retention was a key aspect of the prolonged period of absorption, which correlated with the formulations' relative susceptibility to in‐vitro lipolysis and degradation. Conclusions PHY provides a dramatic sustained‐release effect for cinnarizine on oral administration, which is linked to gastric retention of the formulation and its ability to resist digestive processing. Poorly digested liquid crystal lipid formulations therefore offer a novel class of sustained‐release matrices for oral administration.