Neuromuscular differences between boys with and without intellectual disability during squat jump

The purpose of this study was to identify the differences in vertical squat jump (SJ) between volunteers with and without intellectual disability (ID). Thirteen boys with ID (average intelligence quotient, estimated by Wisk III test: 55.6 ± 11.2) and 13 peers without disabilities performed maximal SJ on a force platform. Kinematic data were captured using a six-camera 3D motion analysis system and electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded using surface electrodes. Unpaired T-test determined the statistical difference between the two groups. The obtained results indicated that the group with ID, jumped lower, developed lower vertical ground reaction forces, knee power output, knee angular velocity, and take-off velocity, and showed longer propulsion duration, decreased mean to maximum agonist EMG activity and higher antagonist/agonist activity ratio. The deficit in the SJ observed in individuals with ID was attributed to a deficit in the examined mechanical and neuromuscular parameters, and especially to the agonist and antagonist co-contraction.     

Differences in the intellectual profile of children with intellectual vs. learning disability

The WISC-IV was used to compare the intellectual profile of two groups of children, one with specific learning disorders (SLDs), the other with intellectual disabilities (ID), with a view to identifying which of the four main factor indexes and two additional indexes can distinguish between the groups. We collected information on WISC-IV scores for 267 children (M_age = 10.61 [SD = 2.51], range 6–16 years, females = 99) with a diagnosis of either SLD or ID. Children with SLD performed better than those with ID in all measures. Only the SLD children, not the ID children, revealed significant differences in the four main factor indexes, and their scores for the additional General Ability Index (GAI) were higher than for the Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI). Children with a diagnosis of SLD whose Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) was <85 showed a similar pattern. Our findings confirm the hypothesis that children with SLD generally obtain high GAI scores, but have specific deficiencies relating to working memory and processing speed, whereas children with ID have a general intellectual impairment. These findings have important diagnostic and clinical implications and should be considered when making diagnostic decisions in borderline cognitive cases.     

Epilepsy in children with intellectual disability in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Effects of sex, level and etiology of intellectual disability

The purpose of this study was to examine the occurrence of epilepsy in children with intellectual disability. An additional goal was to determine if there were statistical differences in the occurrence of epilepsy related to the sex, level and etiology of intellectual disability of children. The sample consisted of 167 children with intellectual disability attending two special education schools in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The method for data collection was the examination of the children's medical records. A chi-square test was performed to determine if there were any significant differences in the occurrence of epilepsy among different categories of children with intellectual disability. Additionally, Phi coefficient and Cramer V coefficient were calculated to determine the strength of association. The occurrence of epilepsy in children with intellectual disability is high and certain etiological categories are associated with an even higher risk of epilepsy.The study confirmed a high occurrence of epilepsy in children with intellectual disability. Some psycho-educational implications of epilepsy were discussed and in the future there should be better cooperation between medical and educational institutions in treating the bio-psycho-social issues of a child with epilepsy.     

Measurement invariance in the assessment of people with an intellectual disability

Intellectual assessment is central to the process of diagnosing an intellectual disability and the assessment process needs to be valid and reliable. One fundamental aspect of validity is that of measurement invariance, i.e. that the assessment measures the same thing in different populations. There are reasons to believe that measurement invariance of the Wechsler scales may not hold for people with an intellectual disability. Many of the issues which may influence factorial invariance are common to all versions of the scales. The present study, therefore, explored the factorial validity of the WAIS-III as used with people with an intellectual disability. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess goodness of fit of the proposed four factor model using 13 and 11 subtests. None of the indices used suggested a good fit for the model, indicating a lack of factorial validity and suggesting a lack of measurement invariance of the assessment with people with an intellectual disability. Several explanations for this and implications for other intellectual assessments were discussed.     

The acquisition of contextual cueing effects by persons with and without intellectual disability

Two experiments were conducted to compare the acquisition of contextual cueing effects of adolescents and young adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) relative to typically developing children and young adults. Contextual cueing reflects an implicit, memory based attention guidance mechanism that results in faster search for target locations that have been previously experienced in a predictable context. In the study, participants located a target stimulus embedded in a context of numerous distracter stimuli. During a learning phase, the location of the target was predictable from the location of the distracters in the search displays. We then compared response times to locating predictable relative to unpredictable targets presented in a test phase. In Experiment 1, all of the distracters predicted the location of the target. In Experiment 2, half of the distracters predicted the location of the target while the other half varied randomly. The participants with ID exhibited significant contextual facilitation in both experiments, with the magnitude of facilitation being similar to that of the typically developing (TD) children and adults. We concluded that deficiencies in contextual cueing are not necessarily associated with low measured intelligence that results in a classification of ID.     

Physiological effects of mandala making in adults with intellectual disability

This study investigated mandala making as an effective physiological stress reducer for individuals with intellectual disability. Stress levels were measured using systolic and diastolic blood pressure and pulse. Participants (N = 15) engaged in three activities, serving as their own controls: mandala making, free drawing and a neutral control condition. Findings revealed no significant differences in changes in stress measures across the three conditions, however, t-tests of blood pressure change in the mandala making condition indicated a statistically significant reduction in both diastolic and systolic pressure between the first and third reading; similar differences were not found in the other two conditions. These findings suggest that mandala making is an effective stress reducer for those with intellectual disability, however, evidence does not show it is more effective than the control conditions. Suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Analogies solving by individuals with and without intellectual disability: Different cognitive patterns as indicated by eye movements

Eighteen adults with intellectual disability (ID) and 20 children with typical development (TD) matched for cognitive level, participated in this study. Participants solved perceptual and conceptual analogies (from the Conceptual and Perceptual Analogical Modifiability Test—CPAM) while having their eye movements monitored. As predicted, the overall percent of correct answers was significantly higher for the TD group compared to that of the ID group. Comparison of the eye movement pattern of each group while solving the analogies revealed that in addition to the quantitative difference between the groups, there is a qualitative difference in the process of solving the analogies. The difference in the scanning pattern between the TD and the ID groups is interpreted as a reflection of two different types of strategies, Constructive matching and Response elimination, respectively.     

Prevalence and factors associated with polypharmacy in Victorian adults with intellectual disability

Although polypharmacy is a medication safety concern leading to increased risk of non-adherence, adverse drug reaction and drug–drug interactions, polypharmacy and associated risk factors has rarely been investigated involving people with ID at a population level. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the prevalence of polypharmacy and to evaluate the role of different factors associated with polypharmacy in a state-wide representative population of adults with ID. In a population-based survey in Victoria, Australia, 897 people with ID 18 years of age or older were selected by simple random sampling. The data were collected from proxy respondents on behalf of people with ID. Polypharmacy was defined as the concomitant use of five or more medications. The data were weighted to reflect the age/sex/geographic distribution of the population. Results revealed that more than 76% of adults with ID had used prescribed medicine and about 21% were exposed to polypharmacy in the last two weeks. In both univariate and multivariate analyses, polypharmacy was significantly associated with older age, unemployment and inability to get help from family and friends if needed. After controlling for age, sex and severity of intellectual disability, polypharmacy was associated with having a blood pressure, blood cholesterol and blood glucose level check. Polypharmacy was also associated with a greater number of visits to general practitioners, fair or poor reported health status and inability to walk unaided. Subjects with epilepsy, diabetes, stroke, osteoporosis and cancer had a higher probability of polypharmacy. None of the disease inducing behaviors was associated with polypharmacy. This study highlights the need that medication should be regularly reviewed overall in ID population and particularly when polypharmacy exists.     

Family burden related to clinical and functional variables of people with intellectual disability with and without a mental disorder

Few studies have been found that to assess the factors that explain higher levels of family burden in adults with intellectual disability (ID) and intellectual disability and mental disorders (ID-MD). The aims of this study were to assess family burden in people with ID and ID-MD and to determine which sociodemographic, clinical and functional disability variables account for family burden. The sample is composed of pairs of 203 participants with disability and their caregivers, of which 33.5% are caregivers of people with ID and 66.5% of ID-MD. Assessments were performed using scales of clinical and functional disability as the following instruments: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (WAIS-III), Inventory for Client and Agency Planning (ICAP), Psychiatric Assessment Schedule for Adults with Development Disability (PAS-ADD checklist), Disability Assessment Schedule of the World Health Organization (WHO-DAS-II) and family burden (Subjective and Objective Family Burden Inventory - SOFBI/ECFOS-II). People with ID-MD presented higher levels of functional disability than those with ID only. Higher levels of family burden were related to higher functional disability in all the areas (p < 0.006-0.001), lower intelligence quotient (p < 0.001), diagnosis of ID-MD (p < 0.001) and presence of organic, affective, psychotic and behavioral disorders (p < 0.001). Stepwise multiple regression showed that behavioral problems, affective and psychotic disorder, disability in participation in society, disability in personal care and presence of ID-MD explained more than 61% of the variance in family burden. An integrated approach using effective multidimensional interventions is essential for both people with ID and ID-MD and their caregivers in order to reduce family burden.     

Intrusiveness of behavioral treatments for adults with intellectual disability

The current study examined treatment intrusiveness within behavior intervention programs developed for adults with intellectual disability (ID). Behavior analysts provided demographic information about themselves, their adult clients with ID, and their clients’ behavior intervention plans, and they completed an online version of the Treatment Intrusiveness Measure (Carter et al., 2009), an instrument that provides a Base Level Intrusiveness Score (BLIS; a score computed across five areas of categorization, such as, Health and Safety) and a Modified Level of Intrusiveness Score (MLIS), which assesses the presence or absence of intrusiveness-reducing practices. Among other findings, various statistical analyses revealed (a) a significant difference between BLIS and modified (BLIS minus MLIS) intrusiveness scores, (b) the practices within which most of the intrusiveness was concentrated within behavioral treatment programs, and (c) the least- and most-utilized intrusiveness-reducing practices. Implications are provided to assist professionals working with adults with ID who engage in challenging behavior and are supported through behavior intervention services.     

Rates of breastfeeding and exposure to socio-economic adversity amongst children with intellectual disability

Children with intellectual disability are at increased risk of experiencing poor health relative to their typically developing peers. Previous research indicates that exposure to socio-economic disadvantage contributes towards this disparity but that additional factors (including parenting practices) may be involved in mediating/moderating pathways. This study examined duration of breastfeeding amongst children with and without intellectual disability by a secondary analysis of data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Children with intellectual disability were significantly less likely to have been ever breastfed; breastfed exclusively or at all at 3 months or breastfed at all at 6 months relative to children without intellectual disability. None of these differences remained significant when other psycho-social risk factors for reduced breastfeeding were controlled for. The study adds to both the sparse literature on breastfeeding practices amongst families of children with intellectual disability and research demonstrating relationships between socio-economic disadvantage and wellbeing for children with intellectual disability.     

Effects of exercise on physical fitness in children with intellectual disability

This paper presents the results of the study which examined the effects of carefully designed physical exercise programs on the development of physical fitness in children with ID. The study sample consisted of 42 children with ID and 45 typically developing children. All the participants were assessed using Eurofit Test Battery. The results were analyzed in terms of participation in the exercise program and level of intellectual functioning. While ID children scored significantly lower on fitness tests when compared with typically developing children, the study revealed an association between degree of ID and physical fitness.     

Symptoms of psychopathology in adults with intellectual disability and seizures

Seizures are more common in individuals with intellectual disabilities than in the general population. As a result, differences in functioning for individuals with intellectual disability with and without seizures have been evaluated. Research on differences in psychopathology for individuals with intellectual disability with and without seizures has been mixed. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in subscale scores on the Diagnostic Assessment for the Severely Handicapped-II (DASH-II) between individuals with intellectual disability with and without seizures. In this study, 321 individuals from two large developmental centers in the southeastern United States were administered the DASH-II. Researchers found that the seizure group endorsed significantly more symptoms on the mood subscale than the group without seizures. No other group differences were found to be significant. Implications of these results are discussed.     

The antecedents of loneliness in older people with an intellectual disability

IntroductionThe cognitive discrepancy approach to loneliness is often used to describe loneliness in ageing populations, but to date, it has never been used to explore loneliness in older people with an intellectual disability. An analysis is needed utilising a refined list of causes of loneliness in this population.MethodUsing data from a nationally representative dataset of people aged over 40 with an intellectual disability (N = 708), this analysis runs repeated regressions of variables grouped into conceptual blocks, organised from sociodemographic to network quality.ResultsVariables selected predicted 23% of the loneliness variance. Functional limitations, education, working in the community, transport difficulties, pain, stress caused by service change, emotional health problems and confiding were all significant predictors of loneliness.ConclusionThat for those with fewer functional limitations only transport difficulties precipitated loneliness, suggests living a more independent life protects from loneliness, in this group. Those with functional limitations and who lead a more service dependent life appear more exposed to loneliness precipitating variables.     

Vision,spatial cognition and intellectual disability

Vision is the most synthetic sensory channel and it provides specific information about the relative position of distant landmarks during visual exploration. In this paper we propose that visual exploration, as assessed by the recording of eye movements, offers an original method to analyze spatial cognition and to reveal alternative adaptation strategies in people with intellectual disabilities (ID). Our general assumption is that eye movement exploration may simultaneously reveal whether, why, and how, compensatory strategies point to specific difficulties related to neurological symptoms. An understanding of these strategies will also help in the development of optimal rehabilitation procedures.     

The relationship between Axis I psychopathology and quality of life in adults with mild to moderate intellectual disability

Individuals with intellectual disability are at risk for impaired quality of life (QOL) compared to the general population. Little is known, however, about factors that may affect QOL in those with intellectual disability. The current study examined the role that Axis I psychopathology plays in the QOL of 138 adults with moderate to borderline intellectual disability. Scores on the Quality of Life Questionnaire (QOL-Q) were compared between those with a Psychotic Disorder, those with a Mood/Anxiety Disorder, and those with no Axis I diagnosis. Additionally, the effects of number of Axis I diagnoses was explored. Those with no Axis I diagnosis were found to have significantly higher QOL-Q scores than those in either diagnostic group. No significant differences were found between the two diagnostic groups. Additionally, those with no Axis I diagnosis were found to have significantly higher QOL-Q scores than those presenting with two or more Axis I diagnoses. The results and their implications are discussed.     

Incidence and trends in psychopathology symptoms over time in adults with severe to profound intellectual disability

Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) have a high risk for developing comorbid psychopathology. While researchers have shown that symptoms of psychopathology remain relatively stable in children with ID over time, little research has been conducted to demonstrate symptom stability for adults with ID. Incidence of psychopathology symptoms was examined in 124 adults with severe to profound ID. Then, trends in symptoms of psychopathology over time were studied in 74 of those individuals who had data collected quarterly over the span of one year. Data from the Diagnostic Assessment for the Severely Handicapped - Second Edition (DASH-II) were evaluated for each of the 13 subscales, as well as the total DASH-II score. For all of the scales except PDD/Autism, symptoms did not fluctuate significantly over the one year period. The PDD/Autism scale revealed a significant change in symptoms from Time 1 to Time 3. The implications of these results are discussed.     

Route learning and shortcut performance in adults with intellectual disability: a study with virtual environments

The ability to learn routes though a virtual environment (VE) and to make a novel shortcut between two locations was assessed in 18 adults with intellectual disability and 18 adults without intellectual disability matched on chronological age. Participants explored two routes (A ⇔ B and A ⇔ C) until they reached a learning criterion. Then, they were placed at B and were asked to find the shortest way to C (B ⇔ C, five trials). Participants in both groups could learn the routes, but most of the participants with intellectual disability could not find the shortest route between B and C. However, the results also revealed important individual differences within the intellectual disability group, with some participants exhibiting more efficient wayfinding behaviour than others. Individuals with intellectual disability may differ in the kind of spatial knowledge they extract from the environment and/or in the strategy they use to learn routes.     

The relationship among side effects associated with anti-epileptic medications in those with intellectual disability

Seizures are fairly common in those with intellectual disabilities. In order to treat these seizures, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are often used and in many cases are effective. However, these medications often create a variety of associated side effects. In order to monitor these side effects, measures such as the SEIZES-B have been used. While many side effects have been found to occur with the use of AEDs, research has not explored if certain side effects are more likely to co-occur. For the current study, 281 people with intellectual disability were administered the SEIZES-B to monitor side effects associated with AEDs. Correlations between side effect subscales were then computed. Several subscales were found to be significantly correlated: hepatic disturbance with dermatological changes and cognitive disturbance; respiratory disturbance with dermatological changes, sedation, and electrolyte disturbance; and cognitive disturbance with sedation and dermatological disturbance. Possible implications of these findings are discussed.