贵州省美沙酮维持治疗门诊海洛因成瘾者偷吸海洛因现状及其影响因素

目的 调查贵州省美沙酮维持治疗门诊海洛因成瘾者偷吸海洛因的情况及其影响因素.方法 从贵州省的8个美沙酮门诊招募了1003名新人组的海洛因成瘾者,进行14个月随访.在随访期间对每个招募的海洛因成瘾者在不同的时间进行尿检.将美沙酮门诊、性别、婚姻情况、工作情况、民族、宗教信仰、使用海洛因的方法、是否强制戒毒过、年龄、美沙酮日平均服药剂量、受教育时间和使用毒品的年限作为自变量代入广义估计方程(GEE)进行分析.结果 1003名海洛因成瘾者平均年龄为(33.3±6.1)岁,平均使用毒品的时间为(8.0±4.0)年,平均日美沙酮剂量为(38.0±16.6)mg.1003名海洛因成瘾者中女性成瘾者占26.0%;15.5%离异;35.8%有全职工作.在治疗不足10个月的海洛因成瘾者中尿检阳性率在30%左右,治疗超过10个月后尿检阳性率开始下降.美沙酮门诊、美沙酮日平均剂量(RR=0.98,P=0.003)、维持治疗时间(RR=0.95,P=0.029)和受教育时间(RR=0.94,P=0.014)是影响海洛因成瘾者偷吸海洛因的因素.结论 在贵州省的8个美沙酮门诊受治者中偷吸海洛因现象比较普遍,应考虑提高美沙酮剂量和维持治疗时间以减少患者偷吸海洛因的情况.     

武汉市海洛因依赖患者美沙酮维持治疗剂量的影响因素

目的 分析武汉市海洛因依赖患者美沙酮维持治疗（Methadone Maintenance Treatment, MMT）剂量的影响因素。方法 武汉市3所MMT门诊的549例海洛因依赖患者完成社会人口学特征和临床特征问卷,并收集其MMT剂量、计算BMI指数和用5点口述分级评分法测量患者的疼痛强度。结果 MMT门诊海洛因依赖患者的MMT剂量为（70.4±29.2）mg/d,高MMT剂量（≥60mg/d）患者占比59%。多因素线性回归分析结果显示,年龄20~39岁、BMI正常、BMI超重及肥胖、人际关系一般/差、注射吸毒、吸毒时间>10年、焦虑和疼痛患者的MMT剂量水平较高。结论 武汉市MMT门诊的海洛因依赖患者MMT剂量相对较高。需综合考虑患者的社会人口学、临床和心理因素特征以确定MMT剂量。     

Impact of methamphetamine precursor chemical legislation, a suppression policy, on the demand for drug treatment

Research is needed to help treatment programs plan for the impacts of drug suppression efforts. Studies to date indicate that heroin suppression may increase treatment demand. This study examines whether treatment demand was impacted by a major US methamphetamine suppression policy -- legislation regulating precursor chemicals. The precursors ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, in forms used by large-scale methamphetamine producers, were regulated in August 1995 and October 1997, respectively. ARIMA-intervention time-series analysis was used to examine the impact of each precursor's regulation on monthly voluntary methamphetamine treatment admissions (a measure of treatment demand), including first-time admissions and re-admissions, in California (1992-2004). Cocaine, heroin, and alcohol treatment admissions were used as quasi-control series. The 1995 regulation of ephedrine was found to be associated with a significant reduction in methamphetamine treatment admissions that lasted approximately 2 years. The 1997 regulation of pseudoephedrine was associated with a significant reduction that lasted approximately 4 years. First-time admissions declined more than re-admissions. Cocaine, heroin, and alcohol admissions were generally unaffected. While heroin suppression may be associated with increased treatment demand as suggested by research to date, this study indicates that methamphetamine precursor regulation was associated with decreases in treatment demand. A possible explanation is that, during times of suppression, heroin users may seek treatment to obtain substitute drugs (e.g., methadone), while methamphetamine users have no comparable incentive. Methamphetamine suppression may particularly impact treatment demand among newer users, as indicated by larger declines in first-time admissions.     

Opioid Agonist Treatments and Heroin Overdose Deaths in Baltimore,Maryland, 1995–2009

Objectives. We examined the association between the expansion of methadone and buprenorphine treatment and the prevalence of heroin overdose deaths in Baltimore, Maryland from 1995 to 2009.Methods. We conducted a longitudinal time series analysis of archival data using linear regression with the Newey–West method to correct SEs for heteroscedasticity and autocorrelation, adjusting for average heroin purity.Results. Overdose deaths attributed to heroin ranged from a high of 312 in 1999 to a low of 106 in 2008. While mean heroin purity rose sharply (1995–1999), the increasing number of patients treated with methadone was not associated with a change in the number of overdose deaths, but starting in 2000 expansion of opioid agonist treatment was associated with a decline in overdose deaths. Adjusting for heroin purity and the number of methadone patients, there was a statistically significant inverse relationship between heroin overdose deaths and patients treated with buprenorphine (P = .002).Conclusions. Increased access to opioid agonist treatment was associated with a reduction in heroin overdose deaths. Implementing policies that support evidence-based medication treatment of opiate dependence may decrease heroin overdose deaths.Heroin overdose death is a major public health problem throughout the world.1–4 Factors thought to be related to the prevalence of heroin overdose death include the availability and purity of heroin on the streets,5–8 periods of brief incarceration or detoxification that lower opioid tolerance,9–14 and the availability and penetration of opioid agonist treatment.1,15–17 Among public health treatment strategies to reduce opioid overdose deaths are increasing opioid agonist maintenance treatments, such as those involving methadone and buprenorphine; using depot naltrexone18; and distributing naloxone.19,20In Baltimore, Maryland, throughout the 1990s, heroin use and addiction were associated with an alarming number of overdose deaths, and from 1990 to 1997 drug overdose deaths increased by 426%, an increase that exceeded that of all the other 26 major US cities reporting to the federal Drug Abuse Warning Network during the same period.21 Starting in 1998, city and state leaders and local foundations renewed efforts to expand access to drug abuse treatment to reduce the impact of heroin and other drug addiction. The city obtained increased state and city funding for drug abuse treatment and reformed zoning laws to ease the opening of new drug abuse treatment programs. Through these efforts, the city’s methadone treatment capacity increased significantly over the next 6 years.With the passage of the Drug Abuse Treatment Act of 2000 and the Food and Drug Administration’s approval of buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid dependence,22 buprenorphine became available through private physician offices and in some community health centers in Baltimore. Maryland added buprenorphine to its Medicaid formulary in 2003 and organized efforts to enroll patients in Medicaid. In late 2006, the Baltimore City Health Department and the local substance abuse authority, the Baltimore Substance Abuse Systems, Inc., funded an initiative to expand access to buprenorphine treatment through formerly drug-free outpatient clinics and physicians’ offices by providing funding for Baltimore City physicians to obtain training and the necessary federal license to prescribe buprenorphine. This initiative integrated buprenorphine into the Baltimore Substance Abuse Systems, Inc.–funded network of drug-free outpatient clinics and created a system, overseen by the local nonprofit Baltimore Healthcare Access, to transfer stabilized buprenorphine patients to primary care physicians in community health centers and other primary care sites for ongoing care. From 2006 through 2009, the number of patients treated with buprenorphine in Baltimore City increased substantially.Through the efforts to expand methadone treatment in regulated opioid treatment programs and the increase in availability of buprenorphine treatment outside such programs, the number of patients treated with these evidence-based medications nearly quadrupled from 1995 through 2009. Meanwhile, heroin overdose deaths declined from a peak of 312 in 1999 to 118 in 2009. We examined the association between the increase in the number of patients treated with methadone and buprenorphine and the decline in heroin overdose deaths. We used archival data obtained from various public and private sources to examine the association between heroin overdose deaths and the increase in methadone and buprenorphine patients, controlling for the average purity of seized heroin in Baltimore City from 1995 through 2009.     

中国九城市1301名社区美沙酮维持治疗门诊患者偷吸海洛因及影响因素分析

目的 了解社区美沙酮维持治疗患者治疗期间偷吸海洛因的情况及其影响因素.方法 在江苏、安徽、云南3省9个城市社区美沙酮维持治疗门诊中抽取1301名符合条件的患者进行问卷调查与随机尿吗啡定性检测.收集一般人口学、艾滋病/毒品滥用相关高危行为、参加美沙酮维持治疗情况、抑郁与焦虑及偷吸海洛因等信息.结果 1301名调查对象中男性居多(76.2%),年龄(34.6±6.5)岁,受教育程度以初中及以下为主(71.7%).平均维持治疗剂量(48.1±29.4)mg/d,目前治疗剂量自我满意度平均得分为8.6,尿吗啡检测阳性率为27.7%.有抑郁和焦虑症状者比例分别为38.3%和18.4%,抑郁合并焦虑症状的比例为14.2%.婚姻状况、治疗时间的长短、目前治疗剂量自我满意度及是否曾退出治疗对偷吸海洛因影响的差异有统计学意义,而性别、教育程度及治疗剂量对偷吸海洛因的影响差异无统计学意义.不同省份间影响偷吸海洛因的因素有所不同,但对当前剂量自我满意度是共同的影响因素.结论 提高门诊服务质量及服药依从性、延长参加治疗的时间、提高患者对治疗剂量的满意度及避免脱失对减少治疗期间偷吸海洛因有重要意义.     

Childhood sexual abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder, and use of heroin among female clients in Israeli methadone maintenance treatment programs (MMTPS)

This study investigated association between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a 1-year follow-up heroin use among female clients in methadone clinics in Israel. Participants were 104 Israeli female clients from four methadone clinics (Mean age = 39.09, SD = 8.61) who reported victimization to childhood sexual abuse. We tested traces in urine of these female clients for heroin a year preceding and a year following the assessment of their PTSD. Results show that 54.2% reported symptoms that accedes the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD. We found that among childhood victimized women PTSD is associated with more frequent use of heroin at a 1-year follow-up even after controlling for duration of the stay at the clinic, background, other traumatic experiences and heroin use a year prior the assessment of their PTSD. This study shows the potential long-run negative consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Not only are these sexually abused women trapped into drug dependence and addiction, they cannot break the vicious cycle of continuing the use of illicit drugs even when treated for their addiction. One major practice implication is that treatment for PTSD proven efficacious will be provided in the methadone and other drug treatment services.     

Childhood Sexual Abuse,Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,and Use of Heroin Among Female Clients in Israeli Methadone Maintenance Treatment Programs (MMTPs)

This study investigated association between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a 1-year follow-up heroin use among female clients in methadone clinics in Israel. Participants were 104 Israeli female clients from four methadone clinics (Mean age = 39.09, SD = 8.61) who reported victimization to childhood sexual abuse. We tested traces in urine of these female clients for heroin a year preceding and a year following the assessment of their PTSD. Results show that 54.2% reported symptoms that accedes the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD. We found that among childhood victimized women PTSD is associated with more frequent use of heroin at a 1-year follow-up even after controlling for duration of the stay at the clinic, background, other traumatic experiences and heroin use a year prior the assessment of their PTSD. This study shows the potential long-run negative consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Not only are these sexually abused women trapped into drug dependence and addiction, they cannot break the vicious cycle of continuing the use of illicit drugs even when treated for their addiction. One major practice implication is that treatment for PTSD proven efficacious will be provided in the methadone and other drug treatment services.     

Achieving a high coverage – the challenge of controlling HIV spread in heroin users

In China, the national plan to open 1000 methadone clinics over a five-year period provides a unique opportunity to assess the impacts of harm reduction in a country with concentrated HIV epidemic amongst heroin users. To track the progress of this public health response, data were collected from the first methadone clinic in Liuzhou, Guangxi, a province with a high HIV prevalence. In the first 15 months of its operation, a cumulative total of 488 heroin users, 86% of which male, had joined the programme. The first dose of methadone was given efficiently at a median of 2 days after registration. Of the 240 heroin users attending the clinic in August 2006, 61% took methadone for four days or more each week. The number of active methadone users, however, leveled off at around 170 after the first two months, despite the availability of capacity to deliver more services. The reasons for this observation are: firstly, the provision of one single service that may not be convenient to all heroin users; and secondly, concerns of heroin users who may feel insecure to come forward. As broad coverage is essential in ultimately reducing HIV risk, a low threshold approach is crucial, which should be supported by the removal of social obstacles and a refinement of the administrative procedures.     

心理咨询干预对提高美沙酮维持治疗者合适剂量和治疗依从性效果的研究

目的 探讨心理咨询干预措施对提高参加美沙酮维持治疗(MMT)者的美沙酮治疗剂量以降低尿吗啡检测阳性率、减少毒品使用和增加治疗依从性的效果。方法 在16个社区MMT门诊招募近12周尿吗啡检测至少有1次阳性记录的治疗人员, 由医务人员进行每2周1次、同伴教育员每1周1次的心理咨询干预, 干预时间12周, 记录研究对象干预前和干预期12周内尿吗啡检测、日均服用美沙酮剂量和服药天数, 比较干预前和干预期间的变化。结果 共对492名研究对象实施了干预, 3项指标均有明显的变化: 尿吗啡检测阳性率从干预前的50.1%下降低到干预期间的27.1%, 平均日服用美沙酮剂量从干预前1周的63.0 mg增加到72.6 mg, 12周内服用美沙酮的天数从干预前的人均69.4 d增加到干预期间的人均73.9 d。 结论 强化咨询干预措施对于减少参加MMT海洛因成瘾者治疗期间偷吸毒品, 增加其服用美沙酮剂量, 提高治疗依从性有良好的效果。     

Expansion of adult hepatitis A and B vaccination in STD clinics and other settings in New York State

Since 1995, the New York State (NYS) Adult Hepatitis Vaccination Program has promoted adult hepatitis B vaccination for those receiving sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic services. An average of 6,333 doses was administered annually from 1995 to 1999. By 2000, only 15 of 57 county STD programs in NYS outside of New York City participated. From 2000 to 2005, efforts to enroll county health departments and others included outreach, provision of hepatitis A and B vaccine, materials and training, and new collaborations. All 57 counties now participate. From 2000 to 2005, the number of settings offering hepatitis vaccination increased from 57 to 119. Sites include STD clinics; jails; migrant, Indian health, and college health centers; and methadone clinics. More than 125,000 doses of hepatitis A and B vaccine were administered from 1995 through 2005, with annual increases up to a high of 21,025 doses in 2005. Intensive promotion expanded hepatitis vaccination to all county STD clinics and other settings where high-risk adults can be vaccinated.     

云南省德宏州海洛因成瘾者美沙酮维持治疗保持率及其影响因素

目的 了解云南省德宏州2005-2009年间海洛因成瘾者美沙酮维持治疗保持率及其影响因素.方法 以入组治疗时间作为进入队列时间进行动态队列研究,计算不同随访时间美沙酮维持治疗保持率,运用Cox比例风险回归模型分析其影响因素.结果 云南省德宏州2005-2009年间共3758人人组治疗,男性占95.8%;以20～39岁为主,占75.8%;农民和无业者占90.4%;少数民族占57.0%;未婚者占35.0%,已婚有配偶者占55.5%;文盲及小学文化程度者占43.9%.开始吸毒的平均年龄为23.93岁;吸食海洛因占96.3%;有40.6%的吸毒者曾经注射吸毒;有21.7%的吸毒者为HIV感染者.美沙酮服药时间最短者不足1个月,最长61个月;首次服药剂量最小为1 ml,最大为330 ml,中位剂量25 ml.截止观察期末,累计退出治疗1798人,在组治疗1960人;入组治疗后1、3、6、9、12、24、36、48和60个月的累积保持率(%)分别为0.919、0.847、0.756、0.690、0.637、0.519、0.417、0.360和0.321.Cox比例风险回归模型多因素结果显示,研究对象所在治疗点、首次服药年度、婚娴状况、HIV抗体检测结果、首次服药剂量以及最后一次尿检结果与维持治疗保持时间长短有显著关联.结论 德宏州美沙酮维持治疗脱失率较高;应加强对美沙酮维持治疗者相关咨询和宣传教育、加强家庭或社区支持、给予合适的首次美沙酮剂量、并解决好偷吸毒品的问题.

Abstract：

Objective To determine the adherence to and its determinants of methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) among heroin addicts in Dehong prefecture in Yunnan province from 2005 to 2009. Methods A dynamic cohort analysis was conducted with the time of treatment initiation as the time of cohort entry, to calculate the proportion of adhering to the treatment at different time points after initiation of the treatment, and to study the determinants of adherence.Results A total of 3758 had been treated. Among them, 95.8% were males, 75.8% aged between 20-39 years, 90.4% were peasants or unemployed, 57.0% were ethnic minorities, 35.0% were single and 55.5% were married with spouses, 43.9% were illiterate or educated at most primary school. The age of first using drugs averaged at 23.93 years. About 96.3% of the study subjects had used heroin and 21.7% were HIV-infected. The minimum time under MMT was less than 1 month and the maximum 61 months. The median methadone dose at first delivery was 25 ml, with the minimum 1 ml and the maximum 330 ml. By the end of the study or observation period, a total of 1798 patients had withdrawn from treatment and 1960 were still under treatment. The proportions of adherence to or still being under the treatment after 1,3,6,9, 12,24, 36,48 and 60 months treatment were 0.919,0.847,0.756, 0.690, 0.637, 0.519, 0.417, 0.360 and 0.321, respectively. Multiple regression analysis using Cox proportional hazard model indicated that withdraw from the methadone maintenance treatment was significantly associated with location of the treatment clinics, year of treatment initiation, marital status, HIV infection status, methadone dose of first delivery and the result of last urine test for heroin use. Conclusion MMT attendants in Dehong prefecture had a relatively high withdraw rate and low adherence rate. More efforts are needed to provide tailored counseling and education to MMT attendants, to provide family and community support, appropriate methadone dose at first delivery, and to better coordinate with local police department.     

贵州省美沙酮维持治疗受治者保持治疗状况及其影响因素

目的 了解美沙酮维持治疗(MMT)的受治者保持治疗率及其影响因素.方法 采用队列研究设计,于2006年6-10月在贵州省8家MMT门诊选择1003名自愿参加调查、新进入MMT项目的 海洛因成瘾者,以面对面访谈方式对影响MMT受治者保持治疗的因素进行问卷调查,并随访其保持治疗的情况至2007年6月.用Kaplan.Meier方法计算保持治疗率,Cox比例风险回归分析影响受治者保持治疗的因素.结果 对MMT受治者的随访共持续14个月,受治者平均保持治疗时间为10个月,第6、12个月时的保持治疗率分别为68.8%、57.4%.受治者在不同MMT门诊、每日服用的美沙酮剂量和对MMT的认识是影响保持治疗的主要因素随着受治者每日服用美沙酮剂量的增加,其退出治疗的风险降低,剂量每增加25 mg,退出治疗的风险降低20%(风险比HR=0.80,P＜0.01).进入MMT时认为需要终生服用美沙酮的受治者比认为以后可以戒断美沙酮的受治者退出治疗的风险低(HR=0.66,P＜0.05).结论 贵州省MMT受治者治疗12个月时只有近一半仍保持治疗;不同的MMT门诊、每日服用美沙酮剂量和对MMT的认识是影响保持治疗的主要因素.     

Retention, HIV risk, and illicit drug use during treatment: methadone dose and visit frequency.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined two major methadone treatment factors, visit frequency and methadone dose, posited to be important in reducing intravenous drug use and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission. METHODS: One hundred fifty opiate-dependent subjects randomly assigned to four groups received 50 or 80 mg of methadone and attended a clinic 2 or 5 days per week. RESULTS: Survival analysis indicated higher dropout rates for groups having five vs two visits per week (Chi2[1]=7.76). Higher proportions of opiate-positive results on urine screens were associated with lower methadone doses (F[1,91]=4.74). CONCLUSIONS: Receiving take-home doses early in treatment enhanced treatment retention. The 50-mg dose combined with five visits per week produced the worst outcome. Fewer visits enhanced retention at 50 mg, but opiate use rates were higher at this dose than they were for either 80-mg group. The HIV infection rate at entry was 9%. No subjects seroconverted during the study. Risk behaviors for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome declined over time regardless of group/dose assignment. These results have important implications for modification of regulatory and clinic policy changes.     

汉川市美沙酮门诊海洛因成瘾者基本情况调查

目的了解汉川市美沙酮维持治疗门诊海洛因成瘾者的人口学及行为学特征,为制定干预措施提供依据。方法对自愿接受美沙酮维持治疗的230名海洛因成瘾者采用社区药物维持治疗评估基线调查。结果海洛因成瘾者中男性占79.57%,40岁及以下者占73.48%,未婚和离异者占55.66%,初中及以下文化程度者占70.87%,无业或待业者占80.87%。毒资花费每天50～1 500元,平均(380.78±268.14)元;过去1个月内76.52%的成瘾者有注射吸毒行为,13.91%的成瘾者共用过注射器。161人(70.00%)有过性行为,多性伴比例占13.66%,21.74%在最近1次性行为时使用了安全套。丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)阳性率62.17%,艾滋病病毒(HIV)阳性率6.52%。过去3个月内37.83%的成瘾者因为吸毒而有过偷、抢、骗等行为,71.74%与家人居住,51.31%自我感觉与家人关系较差。结论进入美沙酮门诊接受治疗的吸毒者为艾滋病的高危人群,应开展积极的健康教育和有效的行为干预措施,阻断艾滋病经吸毒传播。     

μ阿片受体基因多态性与美沙酮维持治疗剂量的关联分析

目的 探讨μ阿片受体基因（OPRM1）6个位点rs6912029、rs510769、rs3798676、rs7748401、rs589046和rs2075572单核苷酸多态性（Single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP）与海洛因成瘾者美沙酮维持治疗剂量的相关性。方法 问卷调查收集696例美沙酮维持治疗门诊患者既往吸毒信息和目前治疗信息,结合多重PCR 技术、MassARRAY iPLEX单碱基延伸技术和基质辅助激光解吸附电离飞行时间质谱分析技术对研究对象OPRM1 基因6个位点进行SNP分型。探讨上述位点多态性与美沙酮维持治疗剂量间的关联。结果 OPRM1 基因rs6912029、rs510769、rs3798676、rs7748401、rs589046和rs2075572共6个位点的等位基因、基因型和单体型频率在美沙酮治疗高剂量和低剂量两组间分布差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）。结论 尚未发现OPRM1基因6个SNP位点（rs6912029、rs510769、rs3798676、rs7748401、rs589046和rs2075572）与海洛因成瘾者美沙酮维持治疗剂量之间存在相关性。     

Tobacco addiction and smoking status in heroin addicts under methadone vs. buprenorphine therapy

Aims of the present investigation were: (i) to assess the prevalence of current smokers and relative smoking status among a large number of heroin addicts attending opioid-substitution therapy prevalence; (ii) to evaluate the relationship between the type (methadone, buprenorphine) and dosage of opioid substitution therapy and nicotine dependence. Three hundred and five (305) heroin addicts under opioid-substitution therapy were recruited at five Addiction Units. All participants completed a questionnaire assessing sociodemographic information, type and dose of opioid-substitution therapy, smoking history and status, Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), and the Zung Self-Rating Depression scale (SDS). 298 subjects, out of 305 (97.2%) were smokers, with an average of 20.5 cigarette/day and a median FTND of 6. Our data confirmed the high prevalence of smokers among heroin addicts, the highest described in the literature to date among heroin addicts under substitution therapies, without any significant difference between methadone vs. buprenorphine therapy groups. There was no correlation between dose of methadone or buprenorphine and average number of cigarettes/day. Patients in substance abuse treatment very frequently smoke cigarettes and often die of tobacco-related diseases. Substance abuse treatment programs too often ignore tobacco use. We hope that these findings will help to incorporate smoking cessation in substance abuse treatments.     

Dosage patterns in methadone treatment: results from a national survey, 1988-2005

Objective

To examine the extent to which U.S. methadone maintenance facilities meet established standards for minimum dosages, 1988–2005.

Data Source

Data were collected from a nationally representative sample of outpatient treatment facilities in 1988 (n=172), 1990 (n=140), 1995 (n=116), 2000 (n=150), and 2005 (n=146).

Study Design

Random-effects multiple regression analysis was used to examine unit characteristics associated with below recommended doses.

Data Collection

Data regarding the proportion of patients who received maintenance dosages of <40, 60, and 80 mg/day were collected from unit directors and clinical supervisors.

Principal Findings

Forty-four percent of patients receive doses of at least 80 mg/day—the threshold identified as recommended practice in recent work. Thirty-four percent of patients receive doses below 60 mg/day, while 17 percent receive doses below 40 mg/day. Units that serve a high proportion of African American or Latino clients were more likely to report low-dose care. Units managed by individuals who strongly favor abstinence models (e.g., Narcotics Anonymous) were more likely to provide low-dose care.

Conclusions

One-third of methadone facilities provide doses below recommended levels. Managerial attitudes about abstinence and their relationship to low doses underscore the contested role of methadone in treatment of opiate disorders.     

Drug-related mortality and fatal overdose risk: Pilot cohort study of heroin users recruited from specialist drug treatment sites in London

Fatal overdose and drug-related mortality are key harms associated with heroin use, especially injecting drug use (IDU), and are a significant contribution to premature mortality among young adults. Routine mortality statistics tend to underreport the number of overdose deaths and do not reflect the wider causes of death associated with heroin use. Cohort studies could provide evidence for interpreting trends in routine mortality statistics and monitoring the effectiveness of strategies that aim to reduce drug-related deaths. We aimed to conduct a retrospective mortality cohort study of heroin users recruited from an anonymous reporting system from specialist drug clinics. Our focus was to test whether (1) specialist agencies would agree to participate with a mortality cohort study, (2) a sample could be recruited to achieve credible estimates of the mortality rate, and (3) ethical considerations could be met. In total, 881 heroin users were recruited from 15 specialist drug agencies. The overall mortality rate of the cohort of heroin users was 1.6 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1 to 2.2.) per 100 person-years. Mortality was higher among males, heroin users older than 30 years, and injectors, but not significantly higher after adjustment in a Cox proportional hazard model. Among the 33 deaths, 17 (52%) were certified from a heroin/methadone or opiate overdose, 4 (12%) from drug misuse, 4 (12%) unascertained, and 8 (24%) unrelated to acute toxic effects of drug use. Overall, the overdose mortality rate was estimated to be at least 1.0 per 100 person-years. The standardized mortality ratio (SMR) was 17 times higher for female and male heroin users in the cohort compared to mortality in the non-heroin-using London population aged 15–59 years. The pilot study showed that these studies are feasible and ethical, and that specialist drug agencies could have a vital role to play in the monitoring of drug-related mortality.