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??Strategy and progress of surgical treatment for breast cancer CHEN Sheng, SHAO Zhi-min. Department of Breast Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai200032, China
Corresponding author: SHAO Zhi-min, E-mail: 0456177@fudan.edu.cn
Abstract Nowadays, the surgical treatment of breast cancer is based on a more conservative and individualized strategy. Standard breast conservation therapy needs to be promoted further, while the positive margin, recurrence and radiotherapy are key concerning issues influencing the choice of conservation surgery for patients and surgeons. Sentinel lymph node biopsy is the standard treatment strategy for lymph node negative breast cancer. The operation technique and indication of axillary nodes dissection are still controversial. The reconstruction surgery has provided opportunities for rebuilt of breast for patients who are not candidates for conservation therapy with consideration of both aesthetics and anti-cancer treatment efficacy. The cross link of imaging technique and surgery tends to be plural, and has achieved a great progress in the biopsy and minimally invasive treatment area. The biological subtype of breast cancer has played an important role in determining intrinsic property and treatment strategy for breast cancer??especially in neoadjuvant therapy.     

乳腺肿瘤外科治疗策略与进展

目前,乳腺癌外科治疗追求更保守的个体化治疗模式。保乳治疗的规范化有待于进一步推广。保乳术后复发及放疗是影响病人与外科医师选择保乳术式意愿的主要核心问题。前哨淋巴结活检已成为淋巴结阴性乳腺癌的标准治疗手段,其具体操作技术和活检后腋窝淋巴结清扫的指征仍缺乏一定的共识。应从美学和肿瘤治疗两个角度考虑乳房重建术,为没有机会保乳的女性提供重塑乳房的可能。近年来,影像学技术与外科的交叉应用逐渐趋于多元化,尤其在乳腺微创活检与病灶定位等方面的应用获得了很大的发展。乳腺癌分子分型已成为当下决定乳腺癌固有特性和治疗策略的重要系统,尤其在新辅助治疗策略的制定中发挥举足轻重的作用。     

Abandoning sentinel lymph node biopsy in early breast cancer? A new trial in progress at the European Institute of Oncology of Milan (SOUND: Sentinel node vs Observation after axillary UltraSouND)

Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) is the standard approach for axillary staging in patients with early breast cancer. Recent data showed no outcome difference in patients with positive sentinel node between axillary dissection vs no further axillary surgery, raising doubts on the role of SLNB itself. Therefore, a new trial was designed comparing SLNB vs observation when axillary ultra-sound is negative in patients with small breast cancer candidates to breast conserving surgery.     

Primary Tumor Response to Induction Chemotherapy as a Predictor of Histological Status of Axillary Nodes in Operable Breast Cancer Patients

Background: Routine use of axillary lymph node dissection is being questioned, especially in clinically N0 patients. The goal of this study was to determine whether primary tumor response to induction chemotherapy (IC) can predict the histological volume of residual axillary disease in patients who were candidates for breast conservation surgery after IC.Methods: Forty-seven patients with stage II or IIIA breast cancer who received breast conservation surgery were selected from a population of patients randomized to receive four cycles of IC. Largest clinical tumor size before and after IC was determined by physical examination, mammography, and breast ultrasound. Clinical nodal status was determined by physical examination and axillary ultrasound and compared with histological findings.Results: In patients with at least 50% reduction in primary tumor size after IC, 12 of 14 (86%) N0 patients and 11 of 17 (65%) N1 patients were histologically negative. In patients with a less than 50% reduction, 0 of 3 N0 patients and 2 of 13 (15%) N1 patients were histologically negative.Conclusions: There is significantly less axillary disease in responders than in nonresponders after IC. For N0 responders, axillary irradiation may be an acceptable alternative to axillary lymph node dissection, and could easily be incorporated into the postsurgical radiotherapy that is standard protocol for breast conservation therapy. The more aggressive disease in nonresponders is best treated by axillary lymph node dissection, pending further study.Presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Society of Surgical Oncology, Orlando, Florida, March 4–7, 1999.     

Breast conservation for male breast carcinoma

Male breast cancer in general is treated by modified radical mastectomy. Data have emerged supporting the replacement of the axillary lymph node dissection by a sentinel lymph node biopsy in the male patient with breast carcinoma. Local therapy in the breast continues to be primarily mastectomy. The reasons suggested for this include the central location of many of the male breast tumors and the paucity of breast tissue. Our experience with breast conservation over the last decade in male breast carcinoma and a review of the literature is outlined here. Between 1996 and 2006, seven men underwent breast conservation for breast carcinoma and to date with a median follow-up of 67 months, there have been no local recurrences. Breast carcinoma in males can be treated with breast conservation with acceptable local recurrence. Breast-conserving surgery in male breast cancer patients should be considered an option in patients without overt nipple/areolar involvement.     

Conservation surgery after primary chemotherapy in large carcinomas of the breast.

OBJECTIVE: The authors evaluated the utility of preoperative chemotherapy in patients with large size breast carcinoma, with a view to rendering a conservative surgical approach possible or easier. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Two hundred twenty-six of 227 patients with breast cancer involving a tumor larger than 3 cm at greatest dimension were candidates for mastectomy. They were treated with various primary preoperative chemotherapies and evaluated for surgery. METHODS: After administering various chemotherapeutic regimens, the authors reevaluated the patients' conditions clinically and radiologically to plan definitive surgical treatment. If the tumor diameter was sufficiently reduced, quadrantectomy was planned; otherwise, mastectomy was performed. Complete axillary lymph node dissection was done in all cases. RESULTS: In 90% of the cases, the size reduction was sufficient to justify breast conservation; in 10%, tumor size did not decrease enough or increased, thus mastectomy was performed. In 11.8% of the cases, the tumor was no longer identifiable at surgical inspection, and in 3.5% no tumor was found on microscopic examination. Axillary lymph nodes were free of metastases in 39% of cases. Twelve local recurrences occurred among the 203 patients treated with breast conservation (5.9%) and five among the 23 patients treated with mastectomy (21.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Primary chemotherapy can expand the indication for breast conservation to large tumors; careful attention, however, must be paid to surgical technique. The position of the tumor should be marked with tattoo points on the skin before chemotherapy. The macroscopic extent of the tumor regression must be evaluated carefully, and multiple frozen section biopsies may be needed. The margins of the resected breast should be evaluated microscopically. All microcalcifications present before treatment must be resected. The skin incision and mammary resection must fulfill criteria of radicality as well as good cosmetic outcome.     

Combined ROLL and sentinel lymph node: a new strategy in radio-guided surgery

Radioguided surgery for the treatment of breast cancer is becoming the gold standard for both diagnosis and therapy. The main rule in using ROLL is perfect localization of non-palpable lesions and minimal invasiveness of excision. The same criteria apply to the sentinel lymph node technique. Clinically occult breast lesions, which require an exact histological diagnosis, are most frequently detected as the result of mammographic screening. The authors show that the ROLL technique for histological diagnosis may alter the subdermal lymphatic drainage so that the sentinel node cannot be found at later surgery. The aim of this study was to report the authors' experience with a combined ROLL and sentinel lymph node biopsy technique for the diagnosis and treatment of occult cancer of the breast.     

Reduction Mammoplasty Approach to Oncoplasty—Zone-Wise Planning in Indian Patients

Introduction This article is an attempt to formulate certain guidelines for planning of zone-wise reconstruction after breast conservation surgery. The planning involves applying reduction mammoplasty principles with certain modifications to address the defect. Patients and Methods This is a retrospective study of 61 patients with breast cancer who underwent breast conservation surgery and reconstruction of partial breast defects with oncoplastic techniques between January 2014 to March 2019. Patients having low tumor to breast ratio and thus good candidates for volume displacement techniques were included in the study. Results A total of 61 breast cancer cases were included; 22 cases were located in zone 1, nine in zone 2, seven in zone 3, three in zone 4, four in zone 5, one in zone 6, 12 in zone 7, two in zone 8, and three in zone 9. The most common pedicle design used was superomedial in 38 cases, followed by inferior in 19 and medial in 6 cases. Vertical short scar technique was used in 33 cases and Wise pattern skin incision in 30 cases. Follow-up period ranged from 4 months to 65 months, with a mean of 31 months. Four patients had partial skin necrosis, three had suture line dehiscence, two had wound infection, one had seroma, and eight patients had fat necrosis. All patients were satisfied with the cosmetic outcome. Conclusion Breast oncoplastic techniques are effective, reliable, oncologically safe, and conducted with minimal complications in patients with moderately large ptotic breasts, thereby making planning easier and more reproducible by following the reconstruction procedures described in the article. We believe that these techniques should be incorporated in the armamentarium of every plastic surgeon to manage the defects created after breast conservation surgery, in order to achieve the best cosmetic outcomes.     

Breast cancer surgery for the 21st century: the continuing evolution of minimally invasive treatments

Since the 1950s, breast cancer surgery has been moving towards less invasive approaches for managing breast cancer, with sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) and breast conservation therapy (BCT) now representing the standard of care for the majority of patients. Even as the use of SLNB is expanding to include patient groups that were previously thought to be poor candidates, questions remain about the optimal management of patients who are clinically node-negative but SLN-positive, since more than half of these patients will prove to be pathologically node-negative. Various approaches are being developed to identify and treat those SLN-positive patients who are likely to have additional positive lymph nodes. The clinical significance of microscopic lesions in the SLN detected by immunohistochemistry continues to be debated--current standards recommend that isolated tumor cells (lesions no larger than 0.2 mm) be classified as pN0--but a definitive answer to this question awaits the completion of further studies. The unresolved questions about the best use of SLNB could become irrelevant with the ongoing development of new molecular prognostic indicators that may replace axillary lymph node status. Similarly, researchers are exploring ways of replacing BCT with ablation techniques that can remove the primary tumor without surgery. Although radiofrequency ablation, focused ultrasound, cryosurgery, and other approaches have captured the imagination of patients and clinicians alike, many technical difficulties remain. Among the most significant of these is the lack of truly precise imaging to locate tumors, estimate their true size, and follow treatment in real-time. These deficits may be filled by future developments in functional imaging (e.g., positron emission tomography) and nanobiotechnology.     

Treatment of Recurrent Breast Cancer Following Breast Conserving Surgery

Patients with isolated ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence face completion mastectomy in the majority of cases. Selected patients may derive good outcomes from repeat breast conservation surgery and indeed repeat irradiation may be employed using one of many different modalities. Tumor biology rather than salvage surgery method is likely to influence outcome. Patients with isolated breast tumor recurrence are treated in the majority of cases with completion mastectomy, when for selected patients there exists little evidence that more radical surgery provides better outcomes in terms of further recurrence and overall survival, than repeated breast conserving surgery. Literature search identifying articles addressing the issue of repeat breast conserving surgery for ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence, and repeat radiotherapy (search terms include: repeat breast conserving surgery, salvage mastectomy, salvage breast conserving surgery, salvage radiotherapy, reirradiation). Thirty‐five articles discussed the outcomes of repeat breast conserving surgery versus salvage mastectomy, methods of repeat breast irradiation, repeat sentinel lymph node biopsy and related factors. Repeat breast conserving surgery may represent a safe and feasible treatment method for isolated ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence.     

Lymphatic mapping improves staging and reduces morbidity in women undergoing total mastectomy for breast carcinoma

Lymphatic mapping (LM) and sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) have become widely accepted in the setting of breast conservation surgery. We hypothesized that LM can be extended to women undergoing total mastectomy, being technically feasible, yielding highly accurate and sensitive results, improving axillary staging, and reducing postoperative morbidity. Between 1995 and 2003, 99 women (mean age 59 years, range 34-87) underwent 100 mastectomies with LM using blue dye alone. Fifty-nine operations (60%) were followed by a completion axillary lymph node dissection (ALND). Ninety per cent of patients had invasive carcinoma; 10 per cent had in situ carcinoma. Mean tumor size was 2.5 cm (range 0.3-8 cm). One hundred fifty-nine sentinel nodes (SNs) (mean 1.65, range 1-5) were successfully identified in 96 (96%) axillae. Twenty-five (25%) sentinel nodes revealed nodal metastases. Five of 25 (20%) SNs had micrometasteses. Three patients had a false-negative SN, yielding a sensitivity of 91 per cent. The accuracy of LM was 97 per cent. No patient who underwent SLNB alone developed lymphedema, axillary seroma formation, infection, or restricted arm movement. This was contrasted with patients undergoing ALND, where 10 (16%) developed lymphedema and 2 (3%) developed an infection. Ten (25%) patients developed axillary paresthesias after SNB compared with 47 (78%) patients after ALND (P < 0.0001). LM in the setting of mastectomy is accurate and sensitive. This technique improves axillary staging and decreases morbidity. Patients who are not candidates for breast conservation should be offered LM and SLNB at the time of mastectomy.     

Methylene blue dye--a safe and effective alternative for sentinel lymph node localization

Abstract:  Sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy has emerged as an effective diagnostic tool in axillary staging in breast cancer. The commonly used technique employs isosulfan blue/patent blue V combined with radioactive colloid tracer. Methylene blue (MB) is a less expensive and readily available alternative dye. The study evaluated the safety and efficacy of MB in SLN localization. A retrospective study of 329 patients with early breast cancer who had SLN localization as part of an ethically approved prospective evaluation study of SLN localization technique was carried out. Lymph node positive, tumors >2 cm on clinical and radiological evaluation, those with previous breast and axillary surgery, neo-adjuvant chemotherapy were excluded from the study. One hundred seventy three patients underwent SLN localization using 1 mL of 1% MB, and a combined MB-radio colloid tracer technique was used in the other 156 patients. Allocation to the groups was by simple randomization. Injection of the dye and radioisotope was into the subdermal plane in the sub-areolar region. Patients underwent breast conservation surgery or mastectomy with SLN directed four node axillary sampling ± axillary clearance. The lymph node was examined by standard microscopy. There were no reported complications with the use of MB aside from temporary tattooing. The technique failed in eight patients giving an identification rate of 97.6%. Ten of the 258 (3.9%) patients had false-negative SLN, with negative predictive value of 96.1%, sensitivity of predicting further axillary disease of 73%, specificity of 87.3%, and overall accuracy of 85.7%. Reported adverse reaction to isosulfan blue/patent blue V varied from minor to severe anaphylactic reactions (1–3%) requiring vigorous resuscitation. Subdermal sub-areolar injection of MB is safe and effective readily available dye for SLN localization in axillary staging of breast cancer with no major adverse reaction.     

Problems with the use of breast conservation therapy for breast cancer in a patient with neurofibromatosis type 1: a case report

Abstract:  Patients with Neurofibromatosis type I and breast cancer represent a subset of people who may be considered at high risk for secondary cancers after conventional whole breast radiation therapy and breast conservation surgery. A case of a 49-year-old woman with neurofibromatosis type I is presented. She was diagnosed with a 1.1-cm right breast infiltrating ductal carcinoma. Clinical, diagnostic imaging, and pathologic features are discussed. Her initial treatment plan of breast conserving therapy was thwarted when her sentinel node biopsy was positive for micrometastatic disease in 1/14 lymph nodes. She elected to have a bilateral simple mastectomy. This case addresses the rare dilemma of offering breast conservation therapy as a viable option for patients with neurofibromatosis type I. Current data on radiation-induced secondary cancers such as sarcoma after treatment for breast and other cancers are reviewed.     

Sentinel Node Biopsy in Patients with Previous Breast Aesthetic Surgery

Background  Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) is the standard method for axillary staging of early breast cancer. Recent studies have focused on questioning the initial contraindication to the technique. There has been insufficient data to recommend SLNB in patients with previous aesthetic breast surgery. Materials and Methods  Between April 2001 and June 2007, 70 patients with previous breast aesthetic surgery underwent SLNB. Fifty had a previous breast augmentation and 20 had breast reduction mammoplasty. All patients underwent lymphoscintigraphy with 99Tc according to our standard technique and sentinel node was identified in all cases. Results  Mean age at cosmetic surgery was 38 years. Mean number of years from aesthetic surgery to the development of the tumour was 10 years. Forty-nine patients underwent conservative breast surgery and 21 patients underwent mastectomy. The sentinel node identification rate was 100%. SLN was positive in 23 patients (32%); there were 18 cases with macrometastasis and 7 cases with micrometastasis. After median follow-up of 19 months, no axillary recurrences have been observed. We observed two ipsilateral local recurrences, one contralateral tumour and one patient developed lung metastasis. Conclusions  Past history of breast augmentation or reduction is not a contraindication to SLNB technique.     

中央区乳腺癌切除乳头乳晕复合体的保乳治疗及中长期随访

目的 探讨中央区乳腺癌切除乳头乳晕复合体的保乳治疗的临床疗效.方法 2002年10月-2012年10月,对43例Ⅰ-Ⅱ期原发性中央区乳腺癌,行癌灶局部扩大切除并腋窝淋巴结清扫的保乳手术,同时切除乳头乳晕复合体.术后常规全乳放射治疗,并根据具体病理及免疫组织化学分析结果,接受化学治疗、内分泌治疗及靶向治疗.结果术后随访7-96个月（中位数38个月）,均无局部复发和远处转移,患侧乳房外形总体优良率86.0%（37/43）（优23例,良14例）.结论 在严格掌握手术指征的前提下,对Ⅰ-Ⅱ期原发性中央区乳腺癌实施切除乳头乳晕复合体的保乳治疗,近期疗效满意,远期效果有待长期随访观察.     

Pathology Considerations in Patients Treated with Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

Neoadjuvant therapy (NAT) originally reserved for the treatment of inflammatory and locally advanced breast cancers is currently offered to women with earlier-stage and operable breast carcinoma. NAT allows more women to be eligible for breast conservation surgery and provides an opportunity to assess the response of carcinomas to therapy. This review focuses on the predictors of therapeutic response in pretreatment tumor, evaluation of post-treatment breast and lymph node specimens and classification systems to evaluate degree of response to NAT.     

Video-assisted axillary surgery for cancer: non-randomized comparison with conventional techniques

Endoscopic techniques have been introduced in most of surgical disciplines including surgery for breast cancer. However, there is shortage of evidence-based guidelines and oncological outcome data. We present a controlled trial of endoscopic axillary surgery for breast cancer with mid-term oncologic results. Fifty cases of axilloscopy for sentinel node biopsy, axillary sampling or full axillary dissection were included. Sentinel node biopsy was accomplished with the blue dye technique. Full axillary dissection was performed with a three-port approach with gas insufflation without liposuction. Endoscopic axillary dissection significantly lowered duration of drainage and operative blood loss. Lymph node harvest with endoscopic approach was significantly lower than with open procedure. One case developed axillary recurrence. Endoscopic sentinel node biopsy yielded identification rate of 80%. Current data do not justify the oncological safety of resectional endoscopic procedures. Endoscopically assisted axillary cancer surgery is technically feasible. The technique is valuable to maximize utility of blue dye method for sentinel lymphadenectomy in areas with no access to radio-guided surgery.     

Reduction mammaplasty in the previously radiated breast: is it safe and does it interfere oncologically?

Lumpectomy with axillary dissection followed by irradiation for early breast cancer, also known as breast conservation therapy, offers less radical surgery with similar rates of survival and recurrences. However, following radiation therapy, temporary and permanent, early and late changes of the breast soft tissue can occur. Thus, any subsequent elective surgery can potentially end in disappointment and disaster. The safety of reduction mammaplasty following irradiation and its effect on oncological follow-up are not well known. In this case report, a 39-year-old female patient is presented. Her breast carcinoma was treated with breast conservation therapy plus irradiation, followed by breast reduction using the inferior pedicle technique 2.5 years later. Postoperative healing was uneventful with no postoperative complications and the aesthetic result was satisfactory. We strongly believe that surgery should be delayed until resolution of the early signs of radiotherapy. Regardless of the technique, if surgical steps are performed delicately on appropriately selected patients, reduction mammaplasty can be accomplished safely. Of course, pathological evaluation of the resected material, as well as postoperative mammograms are essential in order to detect any recurrence.     

Sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer: recommendations for surgeons, pathologists, nuclear physicians and radiologists in Australia and New Zealand

BACKGROUND: Assessment of axillary lymph node status is necessary for patients with invasive breast cancer. Sentinel node biopsy is a new minimally invasive technique that may provide accurate assessment of regional lymph node status while limiting the morbidity associated with axillary clearance. METHODS: A workshop conducted in Adelaide in November 1998 aimed to assess current sentinel node mapping and biopsy techniques, and make recommendations regarding its application in the surgical management of early breast cancer in Australia and New Zealand. RESULTS: At the conclusion of the workshop, a consensus was reached regarding indications, exclusions, sentinel node mapping/biopsy technique, nuclear medicine requirements, pathology and safety of sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer. It was agreed that a feasibility study according to an agreed prospective protocol was necessary to validate the technique by breast surgeons. Surgeons that satisfied validation criteria for the feasibility study could then consider a prospective randomized study comparing sentinel node biopsy with standard axillary dissection. CONCLUSIONS: Sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer involves close cooperation between members of a multidisciplinary team including surgeons, nuclear physicians, pathologists and radiologists. Although the technique has the potential to reduce morbidity associated with axillary surgery, surgical performance in this area will need to be closely monitored to ensure that the technique does not fall into disrepute by adversely affecting breast cancer prognosis.     

Changing trends in breast surgery over a five year period (1998-2002)--a retrospective analysis

Today's development in breast cancer surgery are characterized by the principle of the smallest necessary intervention in contrast with the radicality of the past. To achieve this goal the primary and crucial task is the recognition of early (stage I or II) breast cancer. The National Screening Program started 2002 provides ideal conditions. The authors present a five year (1998-2002) retrospective analysis of breast preserving surgery: over the period 861 operations were performed on breast cancer patients with an average of 46.5% of them with breast conservation. Complications after unnecessary axillary lymph node dissection occurred with a high incidence rate (60%); the authors suggest sentinel node identification and detection performed to avoid these complications. In the "early years" (1998-2001) only 15 preoperative wire-loop markings were performed in patients with non-palpable malignant lesions, whereas from 2002--owing to the National Screening Program--68 such interventions were carried out providing the immense importance of nationwide screening.