家庭医生激励对2型糖尿病患者医疗费用的影响

背景　海门区于2018年1月实施家庭医生按绩效支付（P4P）的糖尿病管理模式,激励家庭医生提高服务质量。目的　评价P4P模式对2型糖尿病患者血糖控制、服药依从性、医疗服务利用及医疗费用的影响。方法　2019年3-6月,对南通市通州区和海门区的2型糖尿病患者（从村卫生室管理的确诊为2型糖尿病患者名单中每隔10例抽取1例患者）进行问卷调查,以实施P4P管理模式的海门区为激励组（n=496）,以常规管理的通州区为对照组（n=589）,问卷主要包括人口学特征、医疗服务利用、医疗费用、空腹血糖、服药依从性。采用负二项回归、Logistic回归和最小二乘法（OLS）回归分析门诊就诊次数、住院服务利用和医疗费用的影响因素。结果　两组2型糖尿病患者教育程度、家庭年均收入、同时患慢性病种数比较,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。激励组的空腹血糖、过去1年门诊就诊次数、住院服务利用、医疗总费用低于常规组,激励组服药依从性高于常规组,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。多因素回归分析结果显示,校正了人口学特征和空腹血糖后,与常规组相比,激励组患者的门诊就诊次数降低了34.6%（IRR=0.654,P<0.05）,药品费用增加了54.96%（eb-1=0.549 6,P<0.05）,医疗总费用降低了34.43%（eb-1=-0.344 3,P<0.05）。进一步将患者按年龄分为<60、60~70、>70岁组后进行多因素回归分析,结果显示与常规组相比,激励组<60、>70岁糖尿病患者的门诊就诊次数分别降低了63.2%（IRR=0.368,P<0.05）和54.2%（IRR=0.458,P<0.05）,>70岁的糖尿病患者住院服务利用率降低了48.0%（OR=0.520,P<0.05）。结论　P4P模式在一定程度上降低了糖尿病患者的门诊服务的利用和>70岁老年人的住院服务利用,降低了年总医疗费。     

家庭医生激励对2型糖尿病患者医疗费用的影响

背景　海门区于2018年1月实施家庭医生按绩效支付（P4P）的糖尿病管理模式,激励家庭医生提高服务质量。目的　评价P4P模式对2型糖尿病患者血糖控制、服药依从性、医疗服务利用及医疗费用的影响。方法　2019年3-6月,对南通市通州区和海门区的2型糖尿病患者（从村卫生室管理的确诊为2型糖尿病患者名单中每隔10例抽取1例患者）进行问卷调查,以实施P4P管理模式的海门区为激励组（n=496）,以常规管理的通州区为对照组（n=589）,问卷主要包括人口学特征、医疗服务利用、医疗费用、空腹血糖、服药依从性。采用负二项回归、Logistic回归和最小二乘法（OLS）回归分析门诊就诊次数、住院服务利用和医疗费用的影响因素。结果　两组2型糖尿病患者教育程度、家庭年均收入、同时患慢性病种数比较,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。激励组的空腹血糖、过去1年门诊就诊次数、住院服务利用、医疗总费用低于常规组,激励组服药依从性高于常规组,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。多因素回归分析结果显示,校正了人口学特征和空腹血糖后,与常规组相比,激励组患者的门诊就诊次数降低了34.6%（IRR=0.654,P<0.05）,药品费用增加了54.96%（eb-1=0.549 6,P<0.05）,医疗总费用降低了34.43%（eb-1=-0.344 3,P<0.05）。进一步将患者按年龄分为<60、60~70、>70岁组后进行多因素回归分析,结果显示与常规组相比,激励组<60、>70岁糖尿病患者的门诊就诊次数分别降低了63.2%（IRR=0.368,P<0.05）和54.2%（IRR=0.458,P<0.05）,>70岁的糖尿病患者住院服务利用率降低了48.0%（OR=0.520,P<0.05）。结论　P4P模式在一定程度上降低了糖尿病患者的门诊服务的利用和>70岁老年人的住院服务利用,降低了年总医疗费。     

Savings from outpatient antibiotic therapy for osteomyelitis. Economic analysis of a therapeutic strategy

Clinical, economic, and epidemiologic data were used to compare the costs of conventional inpatient care of osteomyelitis with the costs of early-discharge treatment using a once-daily parenteral antibiotic at home. Estimated expenses included inpatient medical care, outpatient visits, supplies, child care, home care, transportation, and lost productivity. Early-discharge treatment was associated with lower medical direct, non-medical direct, and indirect expenses than conventional inpatient treatment. Estimated savings per patient ranged from $510 to $22,232 (demonstrating the wide differences in estimated savings when different sources of data on hospital costs are used). These savings are due to large decreases in inpatient costs, which are partially offset by increased outpatient costs. However, because outpatient costs are more often borne by patients than are inpatient costs, early-discharge treatment could be more expensive from the patient's perspective, despite its savings for the hospital and for society as a whole.     

安徽省某三甲医院肺炎患者住院费用影响因素分析

目的探讨影响肺炎患者住院费用的因素,为合理控制医疗费用过快增长提供参考。方法调查某三甲医院的2 808例肺炎住院患者病例资料,数据采用单因素非参数分析及设置哑变量行多元逐步回归分析来探讨影响肺炎患者住院费用的主要因素。结果肺炎患者的住院费用呈逐年上升趋势,费用结构中药费所占比重较大,占52.01%。单因素分析结果表明:住院费用与肺炎患者住院日、医疗费支付方式、病情严重程度、诊疗质量有关。多因素线性回归分析结果显示:住院日是影响住院费用的首要因素。结论控制医疗费用的不合理增长应从合理控制药费和住院日着手。     

Cost of post-stroke outpatient care in Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to investigate the direct cost of outpatient care for patients with stroke, as well as the relationship between the aforementioned cost and the sociodemographic and stroke characteristics of the patients.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study involving patients with first-ever stroke who were attending outpatient stroke rehabilitation, and their family members. Participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire designed to obtain information regarding the cost of outpatient care. Stroke severity was measured using the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale.

RESULTS

This study comprised 49 patients (28 men, 21 women) with a mean age of 60.2 (range 35–80) years. The mean total cost incurred was USD 547.10 (range USD 53.50–4,591.60), of which 36.6% was spent on attendant care, 25.5% on medical aids, 15.1% on travel expenses, 14.1% on medical fees and 8.5% on out-of-pocket expenses. Stroke severity, age > 70 years and haemorrhagic stroke were associated with increased cost. The mean cost of attending outpatient therapy per patient was USD 17.50 per session (range USD 6.60–30.60), with travelling expenses (41.8%) forming the bulk of the cost, followed by medical fees (38.1%) and out-of-pocket expenses (10.9%). Multiple regression analysis showed that stroke severity was the main determinant of post-stroke outpatient care cost (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Post-stroke outpatient care costs are significantly influenced by stroke severity. The cost of attendant care was the main cost incurred during the first three months after hospital discharge, while travelling expenses was the main cost incurred when attending outpatient stroke rehabilitation therapy.     

The cost of asthma in New South Wales

OBJECTIVE: To determine the economic cost of asthma to the New South Wales community. DESIGN: Direct costs (both health-care and non-health-care) plus indirect costs (loss of productivity) were estimated from various sources to assess retrospectively the dollar costs of asthma. Intangible costs (such as quality of life) were not included. SETTING: Estimates of costs were made at all levels of medical care of asthma patients, including inpatient and outpatient hospitalisations, emergency department visits, and visits to general practitioners and specialist physicians, plus costs of pharmaceuticals, nebulisers and home peak-flow monitoring devices. The cost of time lost by the patient attending for medical visits and loss of productivity due to absence from employment as a result of asthma were also included. RESULTS: The total cost of asthma in New South Wales was $209 million in 1989. This was made up of $142 million in direct health-care costs, $19 million in direct non-health-care costs and $48 million in indirect costs. CONCLUSION: Although we believe that our estimate is an underestimate of the true dollar cost of this disease to the community, it represents $769 per asthmatic person per year, assuming a current prevalence rate for asthma in New South Wales of 6%. The cost effectiveness of any new treatment of asthma should be estimated to ensure that the economic cost to the community does not rise unnecessarily.     

Medical care costs of AIDS in Massachusetts

Previous investigation has suggested that the direct cost of medical care for the 24,011 reported patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) may be as high as $147,000 per patient. To evaluate the use and cost of medical services for patients with AIDS in Massachusetts, we performed a one-year cost of illness study of 45 AIDS patients. Sociodemographic and clinical data as well as information on medical utilization were obtained from review of outpatient and hospital records. Patients with AIDS required a mean of 3.3 (+/- 3.2) hospitalizations per year and 18.4 (+/- 21.8) ambulatory visits per year. Overall, medical costs averaged $46,505 +/- $38,720 per patient per year, with 91% of these expenditures related to use of inpatient services. These results suggest that the cost of medical care for AIDS patients may be substantially less than previously estimated.     

The economic consequences of medical injuries. Implications for a no-fault insurance plan.

BACKGROUND--There has been little research into the actual economic consequences of medical injuries. This inhibits informed discussion of alternatives to malpractice litigation. For example, the cost of no-fault medical accident insurance has been thought to be prohibitive. METHOD--As part of a comprehensive analysis of medical injury and litigation, we interviewed a random sample of 794 individuals who had suffered medical adverse events in New York hospitals in 1984 and used their responses to calculate the cost of injuries. We then estimated the costs of a simulated no-fault insurance program that would operate as a second payer to direct insurance sources and would compensate for all financial losses attributed to medical injury. RESULTS--The estimated costs that would be paid by a simulated no-fault program were $161 million for medical care, $276 million for lost wages, and $441 million in lost household production, or a total of $878 million in 1989 dollars for the cohort of patients who were injured in 1984. CONCLUSION--Although our estimate does not include administrative costs, it nonetheless indicates that a no-fault program would not be notably costlier than the more than $1 billion New York physicians now spend annually on malpractice insurance.     

Costs associated with gunshot wounds in Canada in 1991.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the costs (in 1993 dollars) associated with gunshot wounds in Canada in 1991. DESIGN: Cost analysis using separate estimates of gunshot incidence rates and costs per incident for victims who died, those who survived and were admitted to hospital and those who survived and were treated and released from emergency departments. Estimates were based on costs for medical care, mental health care, public services (i.e., police investigation), productivity losses, funeral expenses, and individual and family pain, suffering and lost quality of life. SETTING: Canada. OUTCOME MEASURES: Costs per case, costs by type of incident (e.g., assault, suicide or unintentional shooting) and costs per capita. RESULTS: The total estimated cost associated with gunshot wounds was $6.6 billion. Of this, approximately $63 million was spent on medical and mental health care and $10 million on public services. Productivity losses exceeded $1.5 billion. The remaining cost represented the value attributed to pain, suffering and lost quality of life. Suicides and attempted suicides accounted for the bulk of the costs ($4.7 billion); homicides and assaults were the next most costly ($1.1 billion). The cost per survivor admitted to hospital was approximately $300,000; this amount included just over $29,000 for medical and mental health care. CONCLUSION: Costs associated with gunshot wounds were $235 per capita in Canada in 1991, as compared with $595 in the United States in 1992. The differences in these costs may be due to differences in gun availability in the two countries. This suggests that increased gun control may reduce Canada's costs, especially those related to suicide.     

Medical care costs of patients with AIDS in San Francisco

This article reports on the findings of a study of medical care expenditures of persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) treated at San Francisco General Hospital in 1984. We found that mean charges per AIDS hospital admission were $9024, mean charges of patients with AIDS who received all their hospital inpatient and outpatient care at San Francisco General Hospital in 1984 ranged from $7026 to $23,425, and mean lifetime inpatient charges of patients with AIDS who died and who had received all their inpatient care at the hospital were $27,571. These latter charges were considerably lower than previously published estimates of lifetime direct medical care costs of patients with AIDS, and the possible reasons for the differences include much lower lifetime use of hospital services and somewhat lower cost per hospital day.     

Distribution of variable vs fixed costs of hospital care

CONTEXT: Most strategies proposed to control the rising cost of health care are aimed at reducing medical resource consumption rates. These approaches may be limited in effectiveness because of the relatively low variable cost of medical care. Variable costs (for medication and supplies) are saved if a facility does not provide a service while fixed costs (for salaried labor, buildings, and equipment) are not saved over the short term when a health care facility reduces service. OBJECTIVE: To determine the relative variable and fixed costs of inpatient and outpatient care for a large urban public teaching hospital. DESIGN: Cost analysis. SETTING: A large urban public teaching hospital. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: All expenditures for the institution during 1993 and for each service were categorized as either variable or fixed. Fixed costs included capital expenditures, employee salaries and benefits, building maintenance, and utilities. Variable costs included health care worker supplies, patient care supplies, diagnostic and therapeutic supplies, and medications. RESULTS: In 1993, the hospital had nearly 114000 emergency department visits, 40000 hospital admissions, 240000 inpatient days, and more than 500000 outpatient clinic visits. The total budget for 1993 was $429.2 million, of which $360.3 million (84%) was fixed and $68.8 million (16%) was variable. Overall, 31.5% of total costs were for support expenses such as utilities, employee benefits, and housekeeping salaries, and 52.4% included direct costs of salary for service center personnel who provide services to individual patients. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of cost in providing hospital service is related to buildings, equipment, salaried labor, and overhead, which are fixed over the short term. The high fixed costs emphasize the importance of adjusting fixed costs to patient consumption to maintain efficiency.     

县域医疗服务共同体改革前后医疗费用情况对比分析——以安徽省阜南县为例

目的 了解县域医疗服务共同体(简称县域医共体)改革给患者带来的医疗费用变化,对医共体政策带来的影响进行评价,明确医共体改革给基层群众带来的福祉和影响。方法 对阜南县医共体改革前后的住院量、医疗总费用、医疗总费用中医保可报销费用以及医保实际支付费用和个人支付费用进行统计描述。采用配对t检验对比医共体改革前后的变化。结果 医共体改革后年住院量增长了26.7%,改革前人均医疗总费用增长率为9.2%,而改革后则为1.8%,人均医疗总费用增长率大幅降低;人均医保实际支付费用则依旧持续升高;而人均个人支付费用则由改革前的年度12.0%的增长率下降为改革后的6.7%的负增长,使得人均个人支付费用不断下降。改革后各项指标全县医疗总费用高于改革前,而人均个人支付费用则低于改革前,P＜0.01。结论 医共体改革有效地控制了个人医疗费用的上涨,同时加大了医保的投入,给基层公民来了实惠。医共体改革的实施有利于合理分配使用医疗资源,减轻各地医疗负担,降低基层人民的治疗费用,也达到了合理使用医保费用的目的。     

The economic impact and multiplier effect of a family practice clinic on an academic medical center

Academic medical centers are facing the need to expand their primary care referral base in an increasingly competitive medical environment. This study describes the medical care provided during a 1-year period to 6304 patients registered with a family practice clinic located in an academic medical center. The relative distribution of primary care, secondary referrals, inpatient admissions, and their associated costs are presented. The multiplier effect of the primary care clinic on the academic medical center was substantial. For every $1 billed for ambulatory primary care, there was $6.40 billed elsewhere in the system. Each full-time equivalent family physician generated a calculated sum of $784,752 in direct, billed charges for the hospital and $241,276 in professional fees for the other specialty consultants. The cost of supporting a primary care clinic is likely to be more than offset by the revenues generated from the use of hospital and referral services by patients who received care in the primary care setting.     

大连市抑郁症医疗费用及其影响因素研究

目的:为更好地了解大连市抑郁症医疗费用及其影响因素,探讨如何降低抑郁症经济负担,更加合理的利用医疗资源而进行此项研究。方法:采用横断面研究和回顾式调查,对大连市七院2007年至2009年期间抑郁症患者的住院医疗费用进行调查,通过医院信息中心HIS系统查找其数据,对平均住院费用及其影响因素进行研究。数据采用t检验、方差分析、多重线性回归分析。结果:1.抑郁症患者平均住院费用均逐年增长。2.抑郁症住院费用构成中前三位分别为药费、诊疗费和床位费,分别为24.70%、21.61%和18.32%。3.抑郁症直接医疗费用的主要影响因素包括:性别、平均住院日、费用类别、合并症、预后及婚姻类别(已婚)。研究显示抑郁症直接医疗费用男性高于女性;住院天数越长,住院费用越高;民政和离休治疗费用最高;合并躯体疾病的患者治疗费用要比单一治疗抑郁症费用高;痊愈患者费用最高。已婚者的平均住院费用高于其它婚姻类型。结论:大连市抑郁症医疗费用较高,且逐年增加;影响抑郁症住院费用的因素较复杂,需要探求多种治疗方式以降低医疗费用。     

重庆市活动性肺结核患者直接医疗费用及其构成分析

目的 了解重庆市成功治疗的活动肺结核患者直接医疗费用及构成情况,为制定医保政策提供依据。方法 从《结核病管理系统》中导出重庆市2019年新诊断登记活动性肺结核患者（排除利福平耐药患者）病案,与2019年1月—2020年5月重庆市46家市/县级结核病定点医疗机构的门诊与住院诊疗记录、收费和报销等诊疗信息和费用结算信息进行匹配后,纳入该时间段治愈和完成疗程患者11 745例,以描述性分析其直接医疗费用及构成情况。结果 直接医疗费用共8 385.66万元,自费总费用占60.69%,每例患者直接医疗费用M(P25,P75)为4 517.00(2 143.95,8 905.22)元、自费费用为2 989.12(1 305.58,5 700.14)元、医保报销费用为988.70(42.00,2 721.01)元;药品总费用占比最高（40.56%）,城镇职工医保患者住院比例及各项费用较其他医保类型患者高（α’=0.008(0.05/6),均P<0.008）。全门诊和住院+门诊两种治疗方式每例患者直接医疗费用M(P25,P75)分别为2 806.88(1 621.75,4 746.12)元、10...     

End-stage renal disease in the Northern Territory: current and future treatment costs

OBJECTIVE: To compare hospital costs of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal patients having haemodialysis treatment and forecast the future treatment cost. METHODS: The costs of patients with HD in the "Top End" of Australia's Northern Territory were estimated for the financial years 1996/97 and 1997/98 using a hospital costing model. We used an Autoregression Integrated Moving Average model to predict future demand. RESULTS: 165 patients (101 Aboriginal and 64 non-Aboriginal) were treated at a total cost of $12.4 million in this two-year period. These 165 patients represented 0.7% of inpatients, 8.8% of total inpatient costs and 31.6% of total inpatient episodes of care in the Top End region. $9.5 million (77%) was spent on routine haemodialysis treatment and $2.9m (23%) on other hospitalisations. The average cost per routine haemodialysis treatment over the two-year period was $527, or $78 600 per patient treatment year. Hospitalisations for comorbidities occurred in 86% of Aboriginal and 39% of non-Aboriginal patients. Average cost per patient, number of admissions and length of hospital stays were all significantly greater for Aboriginals. We predict an average increase in the number of treatments of 12% each year over the next five years and a five-year cost of $49.8m. CONCLUSIONS: A multipronged strategy designed to reduce the prevalence and costs of renal failure is required.     

The direct costs of universal precautions in a teaching hospital

An analysis of the increase in expenditures for barrier isolation materials before and after the institution of universal precautions at our 900-bed university hospital was used to generate a national estimate of the cost of implementation of the new Centers for Disease Control guidelines. Following the institution of universal precautions, use of rubber gloves at our hospital increased from 1.64 million pairs of 2.81 million pairs annually. A 5-year review of hospital purchasing and supply records in both inpatient and outpatient areas indicated that the total annual costs for isolation materials increased by $350,900. This represented an increase from $13.70 to $22.89 per admission (60%) after adjustment for inflation. The cost of isolation materials increased from $98 to $215 per 1000 outpatient visits, an adjusted increase of 92%. Two thirds of the increase (64%) was due to rubber gloves and an additional 25% was due to disposable isolation gowns. Universal precautions are estimated to have cost at least $336 million in the United States in fiscal year 1989 after adjustment for inflation. If expenditures for isolation materials at our medical center are representative, previous estimates may have significantly underestimated costs nationwide.     

Employer drug benefit plans and spending on prescription drugs

CONTEXT: With drug spending rising rapidly for working-aged adults, many employers and health insurance providers have changed benefits packages to encourage use of fewer or less expensive drugs. It is unknown how these initiatives affect drug costs. OBJECTIVE: To examine how innovations in benefits packages, such as those that include multitier formularies and mandatory generic substitution, affect total cost to insurance providers for generic and brand drugs and out-of-pocket payments to beneficiaries. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective study from 1997 to 1999 linking claims data of 420,786 primary beneficiaries aged 18 through 64 years who worked at large firms (n = 25) with health insurance benefits that included outpatient drugs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Overall drug costs; generic, single-source brand, and multisource brand costs; and drug expenditures by health insurance providers and out-of-pocket costs for beneficiaries. RESULTS: For a 1-tier plan with a 5 US dollars co-payment for all drugs, the average annual spending was 725 US dollars per member. Doubling co-payments to 10 US dollars for all drugs reduced the annual average drug cost from 725 US dollars to 563 US dollars per member (22.3%, P<.001). Doubling co-payments in a 2-tier plan from 5 US dollars for generics and $10 for brand drugs to 10 US dollars for generics and 20 US dollars for brand drugs reduced costs from 678 US dollars to 455 US dollars (32.9%, P<.001). Adding an additional co-payment of 30 US dollars for nonpreferred brand drugs to a 2-tier plan (10 US dollars generics; 20 US dollars brand) lowered overall drug spending by 4% (P<.001). Requiring mandatory generic substitution in a 2-tier plan reduced drug spending by 8% (P<.001). Doubling co-payments in a 2-tier plan increased the fraction beneficiaries' paid out-of-pocket from 17.6% to 25.6%. CONCLUSIONS: Adding an additional level of co-payment, increasing existing co-payments or coinsurance rates, and requiring mandatory generic substitution all reduced plan payments and overall drug spending among working-age enrollees with employer-provided drug coverage. The reduction in drug spending largely benefited health insurance plans because the percentage of drug expenses beneficiaries paid out-of-pocket rose significantly.     

The 1987 US hospital AIDS survey

In 1987, the National Public Health and Hospital Institute conducted a national survey of 623 acute-care hospitals to obtain information relating to inpatient and outpatient care for persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Two hundred seventy-six hospitals reported treating persons with AIDS; the average length of stay was 16.8 days. Average costs and revenues per inpatient day were $681 and $545, respectively, with a cost per patient per year of $17,910. Estimated cost for AIDS inpatient care during 1987 was $486 million; Medicaid represented the primary payer. Regional and ownership comparisons for this year and between 1985 and 1987 indicated significant differences in utilization, payer source, and financing. Results suggest major differences in reimbursement and losses related to payer source or lack of insurance, with many hospitals that serve large numbers of low-income persons with AIDS encountering moderate to severe financial shortfalls. We conclude that increasing concentrations of persons with AIDS in relatively few hospitals in large cities may make it more difficult to secure the broader political base necessary to obtain adequate support for treatment.     

The cost of intensive and special care of the newborn

The cost of providing intensive (level-3) and special (level-2) care for newborn infants in a tertiary perinatal service was determined prospectively and was expressed in 1984 Australian dollars. Direct costs that were expressed per occupied bed-day were $690 for level-3, high-dependency care; $421 for level-3, low-dependency care; $544 for over-all level-3 care; $242 for level-2, high-dependency care; $170 for level-2, low-dependency care; and $201 for over-all level-2 care. Each level of care generated additional costs of $42 per occupied bed-day. Taking these additional costs into account, the over-all occupied bed-day cost of level-3 and level-2 neonatal care was $339. The major components of this over-all cost were: nursing staff members, 50%; medical staff members, 11%; consumable and recyclable items, 12%; and diagnostic services, 8%.