Axonal regeneration of cat retinal ganglion cells is promoted by nipradilol, an anti-glaucoma drug

Neurons in the CNS can regenerate their axons in an environment of the peripheral nervous system, but this ability is limited. Here we show that an anti-glaucoma drug, nipradilol, at low concentration led to a four-fold increase in the number of cat retinal ganglion cells regenerating their axons into a transplanted peripheral nerve 4 and 6 weeks after axotomy. Nipradilol also increased the number of three main regenerating retinal ganglion cell types (alpha, beta, not alpha/beta), and enhanced the rate of axonal regeneration of these retinal ganglion cells. Nipradilol is a donor of nitric oxide and an antagonist of alpha-1, beta-1 and -2 adrenoreceptors, and we therefore examined whether one of these pharmacological effects might be more important in promoting axon regeneration. A nitric oxide donor increased the number of regenerating retinal ganglion cells, but not the rate of axonal regeneration. Denitro-nipradilol (nitric oxide-deprived nipradilol) or a nitric oxide scavenger injected before nipradilol increased the number of regenerating retinal ganglion cells but did not promote regeneration rate. Blockade of individual alpha- and beta-adrenoreceptors did not increase the number of regenerating retinal ganglion cells or the rate of regeneration. From these results, it is suggested that nitric oxide plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of nipradilol on axon regeneration and neuroprotection, and the metabolite of nipradilol supports the effects.     

不同剂量氯化锂对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

目的:研究不同剂量氯化锂(LiCl)对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞(RGCs)存活的作用。方法:眶内切断72只成年雌性SD大鼠左侧视神经且残端留置荧光金(FG)后,随机分为生理盐水对照组和低剂量(30 mg/kg/d)、中剂量(60 mg/kg/d)、高剂量(85 mg/kg/d)氯化锂实验组。术前1 d及术后每天腹腔注射生理盐水或不同剂量的氯化锂溶液,直至术后2 d、7 d或14 d处死动物。平铺视网膜后取样计数FG逆行标记的存活节细胞,并由此计算出每一视网膜内节细胞的平均密度。结果:术后2 d各剂量氯化锂组节细胞平均密度与对照组相比无显著性差异(P>0.05)。当存活时间增至7 d时,各剂量氯化锂组节细胞密度均明显高于对照组(P<0.01),且中剂量组节细胞密度增高最为显著。术后14 d时,低剂量与中剂量组节细胞密度仍显著高于对照组(P<0.01),但高剂量组节细胞密度与对照组相比无统计学差异(P>0.05)。结论:腹腔内注射氯化锂可显著促进成年大鼠视神经切断后节细胞的存活,这种神经保护作用为剂量依赖性。     

Factors secreted by Schwann cells stimulate the regeneration of neonatal retinal ganglion cells

The adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) does not repair after injury. However, we and others have shown in earlier work that the neonatal CNS is capable of repair and importantly of allowing regenerating axons to re-navigate through the same pathways as they did during development. This phase of neonatal repair is restricted by the fragility of neurons after injury and a lack of trophic factors that enable their survival. Our aim is to define better the factors that sustain neurons after injury and allow regeneration to occur. We describe some of our work using Schwann cells to promote the regeneration of neurons from young postnatal rodents. We have established rapid methods for purifying Schwann cells without the use of either anti-mitotic agents to suppress contaminating fibroblasts or mitotic stimulation to generate large numbers of Schwann cells. The rapidly purified Schwann cells have been used to generate conditioned medium that we have shown stimulates axon regeneration in cultured retinal ganglion cell neurons. We also show that the positive effects of Schwann cells are still present after pharmacological blockade of the neurotrophin receptors, suggesting that novel factors mediate these effects.     

黄芪甲苷对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜节细胞存活的影响

目的:探讨黄芪甲苷(AST)在成年大鼠视神经切断后对视网膜节细胞(RGCs)存活的影响。方法:动物分为正常组、单纯切断视神经组、AST处理组和生理盐水对照组。用荧光金(FG)逆行示踪标记法及定量解剖学技术观察正常和经AST处理的SD大鼠于视神经切断后5、7、14 d的RGCs的密度。结果:正常组RGCs平均密度为(2 230±156)/mm~2。单纯视神经切断组RGCs平均密度与生理盐水对照组相比较,无显著性差异;AST处理组与单纯切断视神经组和生理盐水对照组相比较,在各个时间点上均存在显著性差异。结论:黄芪甲苷可提高成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜节细胞短期存活。     

不同穴位和频率的电针刺激对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞存活的作用

目的:研究不同穴位和频率的电针刺激对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞(节细胞)存活的作用。方法:54只成年SD大鼠接受右侧视神经眶内切断术及节细胞荧光金(Fluoro Gold,FG)逆行性标记后,随机分为9组,对照组(含2、7、14 d组)及不同穴位、频率和伤后存活时间组合的电针组(含假穴4/20 Hz电针7 d组、百会穴4/20 Hz电针7 d组、睛明穴2 Hz电针7 d组、睛明穴4/20 Hz电针2、7、14 d组),每组6只动物。结果:(1)睛明穴4/20 Hz电针7 d组存活节细胞平均密度显著高于对照、假穴和百会穴组(P<0.01),而假穴和百会穴组与对照组间无显著性差异;(2)睛明穴2 Hz与睛明穴4/20 Hz电针7 d组节细胞密度虽无显著性差异,但均显著高于对照7 d组(P<0.01);(3)分别以4/20 Hz电针刺激睛明穴2、7、14 d,与对照组相同时间点相比,仅在伤后7 d出现节细胞密度的显著增高(P<0.01)。结论:以4/20 Hz与2 Hz两种不同频率的电针刺激睛明穴,均能在成年大鼠视神经切断后7 d延缓节细胞的死亡。就本研究所观察的不同穴位和频率而言,电针的神经保护作用取决于针刺穴位而非电针频率。     

Strain-specific differences in the effects of cyclosporin A and FK506 on the survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats

The immune response can influence neuronal viability and plasticity after injury, effects differing in strains of rats with different susceptibility to autoimmune disease. We assessed the effects of i.p. injections of cyclosporin A (CsA) or FK506 on adult retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival and axonal regeneration into peripheral nerve (PN) autografted onto the cut optic nerve of rats resistant (Fischer F344) or vulnerable (Lewis) to autoimmune disease. Circulating and tissue CsA and FK506 levels were similar in both strains. Three weeks after autologous PN transplantation the number of viable beta-III tubulin-positive RGCs was significantly greater in CsA- and FK506-treated F344 rats compared with saline-injected controls. RGC survival in Lewis rats was not significantly altered. In F344 rats, retrograde labeling of RGCs revealed that CsA or FK506 treatment significantly increased the number of RGCs that regenerated an axon into a PN autograft; however these agents had no beneficial effect on axonal regeneration in Lewis rats. PN grafts in F344 rats also contained comparatively more pan-neurofilament immunoreactive axons. In both strains, 3 weeks after transplantation CsA or FK506 treatment resulted in increased retinal macrophage numbers, but only in F344 rats was this increase significant. At this time-point PN grafts in both strains contained many macrophages and some T cells. T cell numbers in Lewis rats were significantly greater than in F344 animals. The increased RGC axonal regeneration seen in CsA- or FK506-treated F344 but not Lewis rats shows that modulation of immune responses after neurotrauma has complex and not always predictable outcomes.     

Patient-derived olfactory mucosa cells but not lung or skin fibroblasts mediate axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion neurons

Ether-a-go-go (ERG) K⁺ channel is a channel of potassium inward rectification. ERG channelopathy may be a cause of sudden unwanted death. The purpose of our study is to assess the effect of antiepileptic drugs on the expression of ERG K⁺ channel in the hippocampus using seizure resistant (SR) and seizure sensitive (SS) gerbils. As compared to controls, in principal neuron of hippocampus ERG immunoreactivity was significantly decreased after administration of AEDs in SS and SR gerbils. In addition, population spike in response to the second stimulus disappeared, thus population spike amplitude ratio was significantly reduced to zero. These findings indicate that AEDs reduce the expression of ERG channel in the hippocampus of the SR and SS gerbils accompanied by the enhancement of paired-pulse inhibition. In addition, the influence of AEDs on ERG expression in the brain may not be relevant to sudden unexpected death in epilepsy.     

The repulsive guidance molecule,RGMa, promotes retinal ganglion cell survival in vitro and in vivo

The repulsive guidance molecule, RGMa, and its receptor Neogenin, regulate neuronal cell death during development, but little is known about their expression and roles in the adult CNS. Here, we show that Neogenin is expressed in the adult rodent retina, particularly on retinal ganglion cells. To determine whether the Neogenin/RGMa pathway is important in the fully developed retina, we examined its contribution to damage-induced neurodegeneration. The effects of RGMa on survival of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) were examined in vitro and in vivo. Using cultured whole-mount retinal explants, we showed that the addition of RGMa increased RGC survival and that this effect was mediated by the Neogenin receptor. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that the inhibition of cell death by RGMa resulted from reduced caspase-3 activation. Then, using an in vivo model of RGC apoptosis after optic nerve transection, we demonstrated that intraocular injection of RGMa at 3 and 7 days after axotomy greatly reduced RGC death 14 days postaxotomy. This study provides the first evidence that RGMa is a molecular target for neuroprotection in retinal pathologies, and suggests that targeting “dependence receptors” such as Neogenin has therapeutic potential for the treatment of neuropathologies in the adult CNS.     

霍乱毒素及外周神经对视神经远端切断后视网膜谷氨酸能节细胞再生的作用

目的：探讨霍乱毒素(CTx)及外周神经对成年金黄地鼠远端视神经受损后视网膜谷氨酸((Glu)能节细胞(RGCs)再生的作用。方法：远端切断视神经并缝接自体坐骨神经(AG),玻璃体内注射CTx及／或植入小段坐骨神经分支(SN)。动物分为AG CTx组;AG SN组;AG SN CTx组,分别存活4W、5W,荧光金和免疫荧光组织化学双标法标记再生的RGCs。结果：术后5W,AG CTx组;AG SN组;AG SN CTx组Glu免疫反应阳性RGCs再生数分别占再生总数的4.25％、2.50％及6.00％,AG SN组与AG SN CTx组间差异显著。结论：CTx与SN能协同促进视神经远端切断后Glu能节细胞的再生．     

Effect of Schwann cell transplantation combined with electroacupuncture on axonal regeneration and remyelination in rats with spinal cord injury

Axonal impairment and demyelination after compressed spinal cord injury lead to serious neurological dysfunction. Increasing studies have suggested that Schwann cells (SCs) transplantation is a reliable, effective, and promising method for treating spinal cord injury. However, single SCs transplantation is insufficient to promote the full recovery of neurological function. Additional approaches are required to support SCs transplantation as a treatment for spinal cord injury. In the study, we investigated whether the combination of electroacupuncture (EA) and SCs transplantation was a reliable intervention for spinal cord injury. We found that rats in the combination group had significantly higher functional locomotor scores than those received single treatment. By immunostaining, we found EA can not only improve survival and proliferation of transplanted SCs but also inhibit SC apoptosis and block the formation of an astrocytic scar. Additionally, EA promoted regenerated axons extending “bullet-shaped” growth cones into the lesion. Remarkably, EA can modify astrogliosis to promote axonal regeneration following SCs transplantation through inducing extension of astrocytic processes in the SCs graft interface. More importantly, the combination of SCs engraftment and EA can enhance corticospinal-tract axonal regeneration and remyelination after spinal cord injury through up-regulating neuregulin 1 type III in SCs and its downstream signaling mediators. Thus, it is concluded that SCs effectively promote axonal recovery after spinal cord injury when combined with EA stimulation. The experimental results have reinforced the theoretical basis of EA for its clinical efficacy in patients with spinal cord injury and merited further investigation for potential clinical application.     

霍乱毒素及联合外周神经对视神经损伤后视网膜节细胞再生的影响

目的探讨霍乱毒素(CTx)及其联合外周神经对成年金黄地鼠视神经损伤后再生视网膜节细胞胞体及轴突的影响。方法扎断(MC)成年金黄地鼠视神经(ON)近端,玻璃体内注射CTx,或联合插入小段坐骨神经分支(SN),或切断视神经近端(ONT)并缝接一段自体坐骨神经,并在玻璃体内注射CTx。动物随机分为MC+CTx组、MC+CTx+SN组、ONT+SN+CTx组。各组动物均存活4周。用荧光金逆行标记再生的轴突,在荧光镜下观察视网膜平铺片中再生的视网膜节细胞大小及视神经切片内再生的轴突。结果MC+CTx组、MC+CTx+SN组、ONT+SN+CTx组再生RGCs周长依次为(56.84±18.08)μm、(83.20±28.28)μm、(94.01±32.44)μm,各组间差异有显著性。再生的RGCs有1-2个轴突,在视神经内多呈波浪状,且多走行在视神经边缘。结论各实验组促进再生的视网膜节细胞大小不同,提示霍乱毒素及其联合外周神经可能促进视网膜不同亚型节细胞再生。     

Mesenchymal stem cells in a polycaprolactone conduit enhance median-nerve regeneration,prevent decrease of creatine phosphokinase levels in muscle,and improve functional recovery in mice

Although the majority of peripheral-nerve regeneration studies are carried out on the sciatic nerve, lesions of the upper extremities are more common in humans and usually lead to significant physical disabilities. The present study was driven by the hypothesis that a combination of strategies, namely grafts of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and resorbable polycaprolactone (PCL) conduits would improve median-nerve regeneration after transection. Mouse median nerves were transected and sutured to PCL tubes that were filled with either green fluorescent protein (GFP⁺) MSC in DMEM or with DMEM alone. During the post-operative period, animals were tested weekly for flexor digitorum muscle function by means of the grasping test. After 8 weeks, the proximal and middle portions of the PCL tube and the regenerating nerves were harvested and processed for light and electron microscopy. The flexor digitorum muscle was weighed and subjected to biochemical analysis for creatine phosphokinase (CK) levels. Scanning electron microscopy of the PCL tube 8 weeks after implantation showed clear signs of wall disintegration. MSC-treated animals showed significantly larger numbers of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers and blood vessels compared with DMEM-treated animals. The flexor digitorum muscle CK levels were significantly higher in the MSC-treated animals, but muscle weight values did not differ between the groups. Compared with the DMEM-treated group, MSC-treated animals showed, by the grasping test, improved functional performance throughout the period analyzed. Immunofluorescence for S-100 and GFP showed, in a few cases, double-labeled cells, suggesting that transplanted cells may occasionally transdifferentiate into Schwann cells. Our data demonstrate that the polycaprolactone conduit filled with MSC is capable of significantly improving the median-nerve regeneration after a traumatic lesion.     

Depletion of NK cells results in disseminating lethal infection with Bordetella pertussis associated with a reduction of antigen-specific Th1 and enhancement of Th2, but not Tr1 cells

IFN-gamma plays a critical role in protection against Bordetella pertussis, but Th1 cells are only detectable after the infection has started to resolve, suggesting a protective role for innate IFN-gamma early in infection. Here, we demonstrate significant recruitment of NK cells and NKT cells into the lungs following respiratory challenge with B. pertussis. Furthermore, NK cells are the primary source of IFN-gamma in the lungs during the acute stage of infection. Stimulation of IFN-gamma production by NK cells was indirect through B. pertussis-activated IL-12 or IL-23 production by dendritic cells. Depletion of NK cells with anti-asialo ganglio-N-tetraosylceramide antibody resulted in a lethal infection, with enhancement of bacterial load in the lungs and dissemination of the bacteria to the liver via the blood. NK cell-depleted mice had significantly reduced B. pertussis-specific IFN-gamma and enhanced IgG1 and IL-5, but not IL-10 production, suggesting that regulatory T cells are induced simultaneously with Th1 cells, but the absence of NK cells resulted in enhancement of Th2-type responses. These findings suggest that NK cells confer resistance to B. pertussis by activating IL-12-mediated production of IFN-gamma, which enhances the anti-bacterial activity of macrophages, but also promotes the differentiation of Th1 cells.     

Leukoreduction system chambers are an efficient,valid, and economic source of functional monocyte-derived dendritic cells and lymphocytes

The demand for human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs), as well as for primary human B and T lymphocytes for immunological research purposes has been increased in recent years. Classically, these monocytes are isolated from blood, leukapheresis products or buffy coats of healthy donors by plastic adherence of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), followed by stimulation with granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-4, while lymphocytes are usually isolated from the non-adherent fraction (NAF) by magnetic cell sorting. However, donor-blood is a limited resource and not every blood bank offers leukapheresis products or buffy coats for laboratory use. Additionally, a leukapheresis is very expensive and also the generation/isolation of cells is time- and cost-intensive. To overcome some of these obstacles, we evaluated if low-cost leukoreduction system chambers (LRSCs), which arise after routine donor plateletpheresis procedures, and are usually discarded, would be an alternative and appropriate source of PBMCs to generate moDCs and to isolate lymphocytes. By analyzing the number and phenotype of immature and mature dendritic cells (DCs), as well as of B and T lymphocytes derived from LRSCs, we found all cells to be of high quantity and quality. Further investigations on DCs comprising transwell migration assays, allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reactions (MLR), cytokine secretion assays, and cytotoxic T cell induction assays revealed high migratory, as well as stimulatory capacity of these cells. In addition, DCs and T cells were efficiently electroporated with mRNA and showed characteristic cytokine production after co-culture, demonstrating LRSCs as an efficient, valid, and economic source for generation of moDCs and lymphocytes for research purposes.     

Lectins interact differentially with purified human eosinophils, cultured cord blood-derived mast cells and the myeloid leukaemic cell line AML14.3D10: induction of interleukin-4 secretion is conserved among granulocytes, but is not proportional to agglutination or lectin–glycoprotein interaction

BACKGROUND: Atopy is closely associated with the cellular T helper type-2 (Th2) phenotype, that is dominated by the pleiotrophic cytokine IL-4. The cellular source of IL-4 has yet to be determined, although basophils have been proposed. Eosinophils and mast cells are likely contenders investigated here, and the eosinophil-like leukaemia line AML14.3D10 is compared to eosinophils as an in vitro culturable model for eosinophils. Lectins can cross-link-specific surface glycoproteins and are found in the ingested (processed foods) and inhaled (airborne pollen grains) human environment. Therefore it is of interest to determine whether lectins can elicit the release of IL-4 from Th2-associated granulocytes other than basophils. METHOD: This study investigated the ability of eosinophils, AML14.3D10 and mast cells to secrete preformed IL-4 in response to stimulation with lectins, and explored molecular mechanisms underlying the interaction. RESULTS: Purified eosinophils and basophils, and cultured mast cells and AML14.3D10 cells were incubated with 1 micro m lectin. Agglutination was scored by microscopy. IL-4 secretion was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Biotinylated lectins were used to determine binding to cells by flow cytometry and in lectin blots of sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) gels. DISCUSSION: Purified human eosinophils, AML14.3D10 cells and cultured mast cells secrete IL-4 with a pattern similar to that found in basophils when stimulated with a panel of reactive and unreactive lectins. The lectin SNA induces IL-4 secretion from mast cells and basophils, but not from eosinophils or AML14.3D10. Eosinophils appear to secrete only pre-formed IL-4, whereas mast cells may synthesize IL-4 on ligation with the lectin LCA. Lectins that agglutinate the granulocytes investigated do not necessarily induce secretion of IL-4. Lectins that elicit secretion of IL-4 bind more to eosinophils than unreactive lectins as determined by flow cytometry and lectin blotting of SDS gels. CONCLUSION: As granulocytes with functions related to that of basophils, eosinophils, AML14.3D10 and cultured mast cells respond to stimulation with lectins similarly to basophils. This emphasizes the possibility that eosinophils and mast cells may be linked in their cellular heritage as the cellular partners, and lectins as ligands, may contribute to the maintenance of a Th2-favoured microenvironment that is thought to underlie the allergic march.