PKP在治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩骨折中的应用

目的评价经皮椎体后凸成形术(PKP)治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折的初步临床疗效。方法7例骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折采用PKP手术治疗,统计手术前后疼痛视觉评分(VAS)和Oswestry功能评分,测量椎体高度和Cobb角。结果VAS评分由术前平均(8.6±0.2)分改善到术后(2.0±0.3)分(P<0.01),Oswestry评分由术前(43±1.12)分到术后(20±0.19)分(P<0.01),椎体高度由术前(15.1±1.8)mm到术后(24.3±2.1)mm,Cobb角由术前的(21.2±4.3)°到术后(10.1±3.2)°(P<0.05)。结论PKP手术可有效恢复骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折椎体高度,缓解疼痛,是一种安全、有效的治疗方法。     

球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折

目的探讨球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折的初步疗效及安全性。方法自2004年12月至2006年5月,采用球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折16例,24个伤椎,均经单侧椎弓根置入可扩张球囊使骨折塌陷椎体复位,然后使用骨水泥充填椎体,观察术后症状改善及骨折复位情况。结果16例手术均顺利,疼痛于术后48h内均明显缓解并可下床活动,患者4~12d内出院。随访6~18个月,平均11个月。平均VAS评分由术前(8.5±0.3)分到术后(2.1±0.2)分和最终随访(2.3±0.3)分(P<0.01);Oswestry功能评分由术前(43±1.32)分到术后(21±1.29)分和最终随访(22±1.25)分(P<0.01);手术椎体前中柱平均高度由术前(14.8±2.8)mm到术后(24.3±2.1)mm和最终随访(24.4±1.9)mm(P<0.05);cobb角平均由术前23.2°±4.6°到术后10.3°±3.1°和最终随访10.2°±4.3°(P<0.05);1例发生骨水泥渗漏,但无严重的并发症。结论球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术可有效恢复骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折椎体的高度,缓解疼痛,改善患者的功能,明显减少骨水泥的渗漏,是一种安全、有效的治疗方法。     

单侧通道椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折的初步临床疗效

目的 探讨单侧通道球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折的临床疗效.方法 自2004年11月-2007年12月,采用单侧通道球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折32例(38椎),观察症状改善及骨折复位情况.结果 手术均顺利完成.术后VAS评分及ODI指数较术前均有显著下降.术后椎体前缘高度和中部高度丢失较术前明显改善.结论 单侧通道球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折创伤小、操作安全、疗效满意.     

单侧入路单球囊治疗老年多椎体骨质疏松性骨折临床疗效分析

[目的]应用单个球囊单侧穿刺多次扩张经皮椎体后凸成形术(percutaneous kyphoplasty,PKP)治疗多椎体骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折的临床疗效.[方法] 2007年6月～2010年9月采用单侧穿刺入路单个球囊多次扩张椎体后突复位成形术治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折患者33例共97个椎体,术后观察疼痛缓解及骨折复位情况,比较手术前后椎体高度和后凸角(Cobb角)的变化.[结果]患者疼痛视觉模拟数字评分由术前的7.5±1.0降至术后的2.8±0.6,手术前后差异有显著性(P＜0.01).术后X线片测量后凸Cobb角由术前的26.8°±3.4°矫正至术后的11.3°±4.6°,手术前后差异有显著性(P＜0.01).[结论]应用单个球囊单侧穿刺可多次扩张完成PKP,具有操作简单、手术时间短、治疗费用低、疗效满意等优点.可选用于治疗多发性骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折.     

单侧与双侧经皮球囊扩张椎体成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折的疗效分析

【摘要】 目的 比较双侧与单侧经皮球囊扩张椎体成形术(PKP)治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折的疗效。方法〓对32例骨质疏松性单节段椎体压缩性骨折进行PKP,其中单侧入路16例,双侧入路16例。观察2组手术时间、手术过程、术后即刻、术后1个月及术后3个月的并发症发生率、脊柱后凸Cobb角、视觉模拟疼痛评分(VAS)及日常生活能力评分(ADL)的差异。结果〓单侧入路组与双侧入路组手术时间分别为40.1±10.0 min、55.3±12.6 min,两者差异有统计学意义(t=-3.780,P<0.001)。术后随访6个月,未发生骨水泥侧漏至椎体两侧、椎间盘、椎管、椎体周围静脉丛,未出现患者神经症状加重、瘫痪等临床并发症。术后6个月,单侧入路组脊柱后凸Cobb角为4.8±0.5°、显著小于双侧组8.3±0.8°(t=-14.840,P<0.001),且分别与治疗前相比,差异均有统计学意义;单侧入路组与双侧入路组VAS评分分别为2.2±0.3分、2.4±0.3分,两者间差异无统计学差异(t=-1.886,P=0.069),与术前比较均有统计学意义。单侧入路组与双侧入路组ADL评分分别为87.6±2.7分、88.0±3.8分,两者间差异无统计学差异(t=-0.343,P=0.734)。术后6个月,单侧组与双侧组椎体中部高度分别为17.6±1.5 mm、8.0±1.7 mm,与治疗前相比,差异有统计学意义(t=-0.706,P=0.486)。结论〓单侧与双侧入路PKP对骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折均具有快速缓解疼痛、恢复椎体高度、矫正脊柱后凸畸形等优点;双侧入路在维持矫正椎体后凸畸形方面更有优势,但单侧入路手术时间短,操作过程简单,手术费用少。     

椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩75%以上骨折

目的探讨利用椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩75%以上骨折的临床疗效。方法对11例新鲜单节段骨质疏松性椎体压缩75%以上骨折行椎体后凸成形术。结果本组获随访1~2年。VAS评分由术前的(8.35±1.25)分下降到术后的(2.12±0.63)分,脊柱后凸角由术前的(21.53±6.23)°恢复到术后的(8.25±3.65)°,术后伤椎引起的疼痛显著缓解,患者能早期恢复日常活动。结论采用椎体后凸成形术可有效治疗骨质疏松性椎体重度压缩骨折。     

单侧与双侧经皮椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体骨折疗效比较

目的比较单侧与双侧椎弓根入路经皮椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体骨折手术疗效。方法56例68节骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折患者,单侧经椎弓根入路30例36节椎体,双侧经椎弓根入路26例32节椎体,采用球囊或Sky扩张器行椎体后凸成形术。术前、术后1周、1年进行疼痛视觉类比评分(VAS)、测量椎体高度恢复率、后凸Cobb角。结果患者均获随访,时间1～3年。单侧组及双侧组术后1周及术后1年疼痛视觉类比评分(VAS)、后凸Cobb角较术前均减少(P<0.05)。单侧组术后1周及术后1年后凸Cobb角恢复率分别为50.2%、43.2%;双侧组分别为52.3%、46.9%。单侧组术后1周及术后1年椎高恢复率分别为46.3%、43.6%;双侧组分别为50.2%、46.1%。术后1周及术后1年VAS评分、后凸Cobb角及椎高恢复率单侧组与双侧组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),但VAS评分术后1年较术后1周两组均有所增加。结论采用单侧与双侧经椎弓根入路经皮椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折均能恢复伤椎体高度、纠正后凸Cobb角并缓解疼痛。术后针对骨质疏松症的病因治疗可提高疗效。     

经皮椎体成形术治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折

目的探讨经皮椎体成形术治疗骨质疏松性脊柱压缩性骨折的临床疗效及并发症。方法随访老年骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折患者21例,男5例,女16例,年龄61~82岁,平均72岁,21例36椎行经皮椎体成形术(PVP),术前及术后3 d进行疼痛视觉类比评分(VAS)和活动能力评分;随访期间观察患者疼痛缓解及生活能力状况,并分析骨水泥渗漏、邻椎骨折、临近器官损伤等并发症。结果手术全部成功,术后早期疼痛明显缓解,VAS评分术后3 d(2.5±0.6)较术前(7.5±0.7)明显下降(P<0.01);活动能力评分术后3 d(1.2±0.4)较术前(2.4±0.6)明显改善(P<0.01)。随访6~26个月(平均16个月);4例发生周围椎体骨折;3例发生骨水泥渗漏。患者对治疗效果满意。结论经皮椎体成形术是一种治疗老年骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折的微创手术,能够有效缓解骨质疏松性椎体骨折引起的疼痛,维持椎体稳定性,恢复椎体的高度,是一种简单、安全、有效的新方法。     

经皮椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松性椎体压缩性骨折

目的评价球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗老年骨质疏松椎体压缩性骨折的疗效和安全性。方法自2008年8月至2011年7月采用椎体后凸成形术治疗老年骨质疏松脊柱压缩骨折30例42椎,患者均有腰背部疼痛。取俯卧位调节手术床使椎体骨折部位过伸,达到满意的闭合复位后,经皮双侧或单侧椎弓根穿刺球囊扩张,填充骨水泥。随访观察患者的疼痛、日常功能以及影像学改变情况。根据术前和术后侧位X线片测量椎体高度、后凸畸形角度,进行统计学分析。利用Oswestry评分、视觉模拟评分（visualanaloguescale,VAS）评定临床疗效。观察有无骨水泥渗漏等并发症。结果术后随访6～24个月,平均10个月。术后伤椎处疼痛均明显缓解,VAS评分从术前平均（8．45±0．48）分降至术后平均（2．45±0．52）分,椎体高度明显恢复,后凸畸形得到矫正。随访期间疗效满意,伤椎高度无明显丢失。未出现严重的骨水泥渗漏并发症。术后椎体高度及伤椎后凸角度与术前比较有统计学差异（P〈0．05）,术后VAS及Oswestry评分与术前比较有统计学差异（P〈0．01）。结论球囊扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗骨质疏松脊柱压缩性骨折,能有效恢复椎体高度和矫正后凸畸形,能迅速缓解疼痛,减少骨折并发症,提高患者生活质量。     

球囊单侧扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗老年骨质疏松性椎体压缩骨折

目的探讨球囊单侧扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗老年骨质疏松性椎体压缩骨折的疗效和安全性.方法2004年12月～2006年12月采用球囊单侧扩张椎体后凸成形术治疗30例骨质疏松性椎体压缩骨折患者,共44个伤椎,其中男13例19个伤椎,女17例25个伤椎;年龄66～83岁,平均72岁;骨折部位为T7～L5椎体,术前CT显示椎体后壁均完整.结果30例患者均手术顺利,3例3个椎体前缘有少许未引起临床症状的骨水泥渗漏,其余椎体X线片上均未见明显骨水泥渗漏.所有患者术后48h内疼痛明显减轻或消失并可下床活动,住院4～12 d.随访6～24个月,平均14个月,术前平均疼痛视觉模拟评分(VAS)为8.6±0.2分,术后为2.0±0.3分,末次随访时为2.1±0.2分,术后评分显著低于术前(P＜0.01);Oswestry功能评分由术前43.1±1.1分降低到术后20.3±1.2分和末次随访21.1±1.2分(P＜0.01);伤椎前、中柱的平均高度由术前15.1±1.8mm增加到术后24.3±2.1 mm和末次随访24.4±1.8 mm,手术前后差异有显著性(P＜0.05).脊柱后凸Cobb角由术前平均21.2°±4.3°减小到术后10.1°±3.2°和末次随访10.2°±3.3°(P＜0.05).结论球囊单侧扩张椎体后凸成形术可有效恢复骨质疏松性椎体压缩骨折椎体的高度,缓解疼痛,改善患者的脊柱功能及减少骨水泥渗漏,临床疗效满意.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.