原发性遗尿症与血浆ADH的相关性研究

为探讨抗利尿激素 (ADH)和原发性遗尿症 (PNE)发病的相关性 ,用放免法测定PNE患儿和健康正常儿童的白天及夜间血浆ADH水平 ,并测定同时点的血和尿渗透压。结果表明 ,正常对照组凌晨1时的ADH水平明显升高 ,达87.79ng/L±22.45ng/L ,较下午3时ADH水平 (55.49ng/L±15.97ng/L)上升了58.2 % ,差异具有显著性 (P<0.001) ;病例组在凌晨1时和下午3时ADH水平分别为59.11ng/L±35.45ng/L和66.84ng/L±42.82ng/L ,差异无显著性 (P>0.05) ;与正常对照组相比 ,病例组在下午3时的ADH水平差异无显著性 (P>0.05) ,而凌晨1时则明显降低 (P<0.001)。提示广东地区健康儿童夜间ADH分泌明显升高 ,而PNE患儿没有发现夜间ADH分泌高峰 ,即广东地区PNE患儿的发病与夜间ADH分泌不足有关     

原发性遗尿症与血清血管升压素的相关性

目的探讨血清血管升压素(ADH)和原发性遗尿症(PNE)发病的相关性。方法用酶联免疫吸附法前瞻性测定18例(男10例,女8例;年龄5～14岁,平均8.06岁)PNE患儿和20例5～14岁(平均年龄8.15岁)(男10例,女10例)健康儿童的白天(3Pm)及夜间(1Am)血清ADH水平,并测定同时间血渗透压。结果对照组1Am的ADH水平较3Pm的ADH水平明显上升,差异具有显著性(P=0.002);病例组在1Am和3Pm的ADH水平差异无显著性(P=0.834);与对照组比较,病例组3Pm的ADH水平差异无显著性(P=1.0),而1Am则明显降低(P=0)。晨尿(6～7Am)渗透压病例组明显低于对照组(P=0.023),而白天尿(3Pm)渗透压二组之间差异无显著性(P=1.0);而血渗透压二组均相对稳定(P=0.430,0.578)。结论PNE患儿存在夜间ADH分泌不足。     

尿渗透压检测在小儿遗尿症中的应用

目的探讨尿渗透压检测在儿童遗尿症诊治中的应用价值。方法50例原发性遗尿儿童,于治疗前测定夜间尿量及尿渗透压、夜间血清抗利尿激素（AVP）,并给予口服去氨加压素（DDAVP）治疗,根据DDAVP的治疗反应分为有效（DR）35例,无效（DNR）15例。30例正常儿童对照组,测定夜间尿量和尿渗透压。结果遗尿儿童夜间尿渗透压与夜间尿量呈负相关（r=-0.506,P〈0.05）,与夜间AVP呈正相关（r=0.725,P〈0.05）。DR儿童夜间尿渗透压水平为（682.71±213.95）mOsm/L,尿量为（265.14±164.48）ml,血清AVP浓度为（4.06±1.66）pg/ml;DNR患儿夜间尿渗透压水平为（1085.00±88.88）mOsm/L,尿量为（125.33±50.97）ml,血清AVP浓度为（7.27±1.48）pg/ml。两者比较差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.001）。结论遗尿儿童夜间尿渗透压与尿量、血清AVP浓度有相关性。夜间尿渗透压可反映遗尿儿童夜间AVP的分泌水平。夜间尿渗透压降低的遗尿儿童夜间AVP分泌不足,对DDAVP治疗疗效好,尿渗透压的测定对选择DDAVP治疗有参考价值。     

儿童原发性夜间遗尿症尿动力学研究

目的　通过对睡眠中自然充盈状态膀胱尿动力学检测 ,探讨儿童原发性夜间遗尿症(PNE)膀胱病理生理改变。方法　PNE组儿童 5 0例 ,对照组儿童 30例 ,无PNE临床表现。两组均进行下列检查 :晨尿分析、泌尿系B超、尿流率 ,检查结果均正常者列入研究对象 ;连续记录 7d排尿日记 ;在夜间动态脑电图监测下 ,进行自然充盈膀胱的尿动力学检测。结果　夜间总尿量、功能性膀胱容量 (FBC)和排尿潜伏期 :PNE组夜间总尿量与对照组比较差异无显著性意义 (P >0 .0 5 ) ,FBC显著低于对照组 (P <0 .0 1) ,排尿潜伏期显著低于对照 (P <0 .0 1) ;遗尿发生于S2 4期 ;PNE组中膀胱顺应性 (BC)下降 4例 ,对照组 0例 ;PNE组逼尿肌不稳定收缩 (DI) 2 9例 ( 5 8.0 % ) ,对照组 3例( 10 .0 % ) ,差异有显著性意义 (P <0 .0 1) ;DI虽随年龄增加有下降趋势 ,但差异无显著性意义 (P >0 .0 5 ) ;充盈期出现DI伴尿道压下降 ,PNE组 8例 ,对照组 0例 ,排尿期尿道压增高伴盆底肌电活动增强PNE组 4 8例 ( 96 .0 % ) ,对照组 2 8例 ( 93.3% ) ,差异无显著性意义 (P >0 .0 5 )。结论　FBC下降是PNE基本特征 ;DI是PNE重要病理生理改变 ;充盈过程部分PNE可能存在尿道括约肌中枢功能不稳定     

儿童原发性遗尿症应用去氨加压素疗效的探讨

目的 研究应用去氨加压素（弥凝）治疗儿童原发性遗尿症（PNE）的临床疗效，并探讨其治疗指征。方法 对2003年4月至2006年8月在上海儿童医学中心发育行为儿科被确诊为PNE的160例患儿给予去氨加压素治疗，观察其近期疗效和远期疗效，以及治疗过程中的变化，并采用多因素分析利于疗效的指征。结果 去氨加压素治疗PNE的近期和远期治愈率分别为40.6% (65/160)和28.1%(45/160)，停止治疗3个月后的复发率高达57.5%。在治疗的第1个月末，患儿平均遗尿次数迅速减少，由每周(6.38±1.82)次降至每周（3.16±0.95）次；第2~4个月末，平均遗尿次数下降不明显，仅由每周（3.16±0.95）次降至每周（2.54±0.69）次。160例患儿中，85例治疗前从不夜间自行起床排尿，治疗后其中有23例出现夜间自行起床排尿。在治疗的第1个月末，患儿遗尿发生时间中位数明显后推，由原来的凌晨2：00～3：00时推后至清晨4：00～5：00时。回归分析显示降低药物治疗效果的危险因素为遗尿次数多，指每周>7次（RR=3.15，95%CI：2.84～4.64）；功能性膀胱容量小，指<5 mL?kg-1（RR=2.92，95%CI：1.86～3.93）；遗尿发生时间早，指早于清晨4：00时（RR=1.65，95%CI：1.16～2.55）。结论 应用去氨加压素治疗儿童PNE起效快，近期疗效较好，但复发率较高，使远期疗效降低；选取功能性膀胱容量大、夜间首次遗尿发生在清晨4时以后、遗尿次数少的患儿选用去氨加压素能极大地提高临床疗效。     

多巴胺D4受体基因多态性与原发性夜间遗尿症的关联研究

目的：研究多巴胺D4受体(dopamine D4 receptor ,DRD4)基因的多态性及其组合分布与原发性夜间遗尿症（PNE）的相关性。方法：选取无亲缘关系的PNE儿童86例以及无亲缘关系的健康儿童100例为对照组,提取静脉血白细胞基因组DNA,采用聚合酶链反应及等位基因特异性扩增技术检测DRD4基因-1240L/S,-521C/T与-616C/G 3个位点的基因型。结果：PNE组与对照组DRD4-616C/G的等位基因频率及基因型频率差异存在显著性（ χ2=8.13,P＜0.05;χ2=6.23,P＜0.05）。等位基因组合分布研究发现DRD4-1240 L/S-616 C/G-521 C/T组合的单倍型LCT分布频率在PNE组明显高于正常对照组（χ2=5.88,P＜0.05）。结论：PNE儿童DRD4基因-616位点由G到C的转换可能影响DRD4基因的诱导及转录,DRD4基因启动子区3个功能多态位点构成的单倍型LCT可能进一步协同抑制了DRD4基因的转录活性,可能使DRD4蛋白表达降低,注意力缺陷,睡眠觉醒障碍,引起夜间遗尿。     

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目的探讨过敏性紫癜(HSP)患儿尿表皮生长因子(EGF)质量浓度检测及其对早期肾损害的诊断价值。方法91例HSP患儿为山东省青岛市妇女儿童医疗保健中心2003-01—2004-12住院确诊患儿,采用双抗体夹心ELISA方法检测HSP患儿和30例正常对照组儿童的尿EGF和尿视黄醇结合蛋白(RBP)质量浓度,同时采用全自动特殊蛋白分析仪测定尿微量白蛋白(MA)质量浓度。结果(1)HSP患儿尿EGF质量浓度[(78.59±18.09)ng/mL]明显高于正常对照组[(29.30±13.92)ng/mL],差异有显著性(t值为13.64,P<0.01)。HSP各临床分型间比较发现紫癜肾型尿EGF质量浓度[(98.31±17.68)ng/mL]分别高于其它临床型:皮肤型[(78.76±12.66)ng/mL]、腹型[(77.16±11.77)ng/mL]、关节型[(76.49±17.45)ng/mL]、混合型[(77.71±13.49)ng/mL],差异均有显著性意义(P均<0.05),而其余各临床分型间比较差异无显著性(P均>0.05)。(2)HSP患儿尿MA质量浓度为(43.21±10.23)mg/L,明显高于正常对照组[(6.41±2.86)mg/L],两者比较差异有显著性(t′=25.91,P<0.01)。(3)HSP患儿尿RBP质量浓度为(46.8±20.9)ng/mL,明显高于正常对照组[(12.8±4.8)ng/mL],差异有显著性(t′=11.98,P<0.01)。(4)91例急性期受检患儿中尿常规异常者14例(15.38%),尿MA升高者37例(61.67%),尿RBP升高者45例(75%),尿MA和(或)RBP升高者51例(85%),尿EGF升高者84例(92.3%),尿EGF阳性率与文献报道肾活检的相仿。结论HSP患儿尿EGF、RBP、MA质量浓度均明显增高,EGF在HSP伴有肾损害者早期升高尤为明显,考虑EGF增高可能与HSP病理改变程度有关,因此,EGF增高可作为HSP早期肾损害的敏感指标之一。     

儿童原发性夜间遗尿症生理心理治疗的疗效及随访评估

摘要 目的 应用生理心理治疗观察儿童原发性夜间遗尿症（PNE）的临床远期疗效，并探讨其治疗机制。 方法 对2004年9月至2006年1月在上海交通大学医学院附属上海儿童医学中心发育行为儿科应用生理心理治疗PNE患儿的资料进行回顾性分析，治疗中2周随访1次（随访观察6个月），治疗结束后1个月随访1次，家长每日记录患儿遗尿频率和夜间自行起床排尿次数。B超测定治疗前和治疗结束时最大憋尿状态下的膀胱容量。统计分析生理心理治疗的远期疗效，遗尿频率、膀胱容量以及夜间自行起床排尿次数的变化情况，采用Logistic回归分析影响生理心理治疗远期疗效的危险因素。结果 研究期间应用生理心理治疗的68例PNE患儿远期疗效为：治愈43例（63.2%），显效18例（26.5%），部分有效5例（7.4%），无效2例（2.9%）。治疗前平均遗尿频率为每周(6.12±1.32)次，停止治疗6个月后遗尿频率为每周（1.23±0.18）次(t= 2.65,P=0.011 )。治疗前平均夜间自行起床排尿次数为每周（0.72±0.15）次，停止治疗6个月后平均夜间自行起床排尿次数为每周（6.83±1.16）次(t= 2.25,P=0.026 )。治疗前患儿平均膀胱容量/体重为(4.13±0.98) mL·kg-1，治疗后平均膀胱容量/体重为(8.69±1.96) mL·kg-1(t= 2.58,P=0.016 )。Logistic回归分析显示有统计学意义：降低生理心理远期疗效的危险因素为年龄小［年龄<8岁（RR=3.24，95%CI：2.54～4.83）］、存在行为问题（RR=2.95，95%CI：1.33～4.16），膀胱容量小［膀胱容量/体重<5 mL·kg-1（RR=1.75，95%CI：1.03～2.67）］，治疗前从未夜间自行起床排尿（RR=1.25，95%CI：1.04～2.17）。结论 应用生理心理治疗PNE可较快发展患儿的夜间排尿控制能力，亦可增大患儿膀胱容量，远期疗效较好。     

托特罗定叠加槐杞黄颗粒和心理行为干预治疗晨尿渗透浓度正常的原发性遗尿症患儿的随机平行对照研究

目的 对去氨加压素(DDAVP)治疗无效的、晨尿渗透浓度正常的原发性遗尿（PNE）患儿,以托特罗定为基础叠加槐杞黄颗粒和心理行为干预,寻求最佳治疗方案。方法 对DDAVP治疗无效的PNE门诊患儿经过 1个月的药物洗脱期,以区组随机方法分为3组：西药组（托特罗定）、中西药组（托特罗定+槐杞黄颗粒）和联合组（托特罗定+槐杞黄颗粒+心理行为干预）行平行随机对照试验,入组时依据患儿及其家长回忆的月遗尿次数视为基线遗尿次数,在治疗结束时（近期）和治疗结束后3个月（远期）评估疗效并行意向性分析。结果 符合纳入排除标准的234例PNE患儿进入本文分析,3组各78例,3组间年龄、性别和基线遗尿次数差异均无统计学意义（P均>0.05）;近期和远期总有效率,联合组和中西药组均好于西药组,差异有统计学意义（P分别为0.017和<0.001）;近期总有效率,联合组与中西药组差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）,远期总有效率,联合组与中西药组差异有统计学意义（P＝0.005）,联合组近期和远期得到1例有益结果需要治疗PNE人数（NNT）分别为6.5（95％CI：3.7～25.3）和2.4（95％CI：1.8～3.6）,中西药组远期NNT为和4.6(95％CI:2.7～15.2)。结论 托特罗定+槐杞黄颗粒+心理行为干预2.4例DDAVP治疗无效的晨尿渗透浓度正常的PNE患儿在远期疗效上有1例有效,而且置信区间很窄,对这一结果信心很大。     

大剂量环磷酰胺对儿童水、电解质及肾功能的影响

目的 了解大剂量环磷酰胺(HD-CTX)对儿童水、电解质及肾功能的影响,探讨低钠血症的发生机制.方法 观察HDCTX治疗后患儿的临床反应,并监测治疗前及开始后6 h或8 h血生化、肌酸酐(Cr),部分患儿测定治疗前后血管升压素(ADH),对比分析HD-CTX治疗前后检测结果.结果 108例中呕吐24例,少尿22例,水肿4例,7例有神经肌肉症状,5例有腹痛、腹泻等.HD-CTX后血钠明显下降[6 h:(139.12±3.30)mmol/L us (134.06±8.23)mmol/L,8 h:(141.77±3.59)mmol/L us (133.26 ±6.41)mmol/L P.＜0.05],39例出现低钠血症,其中12例为严重低钠(＜125 mmol/L);血渗透压与血钠下降平行;监测用药后8 h患儿血钠、渗透压下降较6 h明显.血钠下降幅度与患几年龄无关,伴呕吐或少尿者血钠降低较无相应症状者明显.HD-CTX治疗前后血ADH无显著变化[(0.178 ±0.129)μg/L us (0.194±0.173) μg/L P＞0.05),与血钠及渗透压也无相关性.HD-CTX治疗后8 h血Cr明显高于用药前[(29.95±13.61) μmol/L us (43.33 ±17.25) μmol/L P＜0.05],且增加倍数与年龄负相关(r=-0.320 P＜0.05);对照组化疗患儿,化疗水化后血Cr显著低于化疗前[(32.64±14.29) μmol/L us (49.72 ±12.52)μmol/L P＜0.05].结论 HD-CTX治疗可引起严重低钠血症,伴呕吐或尿量减少患儿更应注意.低钠发生的机制主要为水潴留所致,可能与ADH的不恰当分泌无关.HD-CTX还可导致血Cr升高,尤其在小年龄患儿更明显,可能对肾小球滤过功能有影响.     

Allergic factors associated with the development of asthma and the influence of cetirizine in a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial: First results of ETA®

There is a common progression known as the allergic march from atopic dermatitis to allergic asthma. Cetirizine has several antiallergic properties that suggest a potential effect on the development of airway inflammation and asthma in infants with atopic dermatitis. Methods. Over a two year period, 817 infants aged one to two years who suffered from atopic dermatitis and with a history of atopic disease in a parent or sibling were included in the ETAC^® (Early Treatment of the Atopic Child) trial, a multi-country, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. The infants were treated for 18 months with either cetirizine (0.25mg/ kg b.i.d.) or placebo. The number of infants who developed asthma was compared between the two groups. Clinical and biological assessments including analysis of total and specific IgE antibodies were performed. Results. In the placebo group, the relative risk (RR) for developing asthma was elevated in patients with a raised level of total IgE (≥ 30 kU/I) or specific IgE (≥ 0.35 kUA/I) for grass pollen, house dust mite or cat dander (RR between 1.4 and 1.7). Compared to placebo, cetirizine significantly reduced the incidence of asthma for patients sensitised to grass pollen (RR = 0.5) or to house dust mite (RR = 0.6). However, in the population that included all infants with normal and elevated total or specific IgE (intention-to-treat - ITT), there was no difference between the numbers of infants developing asthma while receiving cetirizine or placebo. The adverse events profile was similar in the two treatment groups. Discussion. Raised total IgE level and raised specific IgE levels to grass pollen, house dust mite or cat dander were predictive of subsequent asthma. Cetirizine halved the number of patients developing asthma in the subgroups sensitised to grass pollen or house dust mite (i.e. 20% of the study population). In view of the proven safety of the drug, we propose this treatment as a primary pharmacological intervention strategy to prevent the development of asthma in specifically sensitised infants with atopic dermatitis.     

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孤独症谱系障碍(autistic-spectrum disorders,ASDs)近年来患病率逐年攀升至1%左右,其症状往往伴随终生,成为严重威胁儿童健康和发展的神经发育性疾患;注意缺陷多动障碍(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,ADHD)是儿童期最常见的精神障碍,国内报道患病率为4.13%～5.83%,其症状可延续至青少年期,甚至到成年期[1]。这两类精神障碍在成年期的临床表现、共患病、治疗策略和预后与儿童期有哪些不同呢?本文通过回顾相     

EXCITING NEW TREATMENT APPROACHES FOR PATHYPHYSIOLOGIC MECHANISMS OF SICKLE CELL DISEASE

During the past several decades, our understanding of the complex pathophysiology of vasoocclusion associated with sickle cell disease has improved greatly. Interaction of genes, hemoglobin molecules, red cell membrane and metabolic changes, cell-cell interactions and cell-plasma interactions, red cell adhesion to vascular endothelium, activation of coagulation, and vascular reactivity play a role in vaso occlusion. Penicillin prophylaxis of pneumococcal infections and appropriate use of blood transfusions and other supportive measures improved survival of sickle cell patients. Hydroxyurea made a major impact on sickle cell therapy when it was shown to decrease acute painful episodes, acute chest syndrome, and the need for blood transfusion in adults. Significant experience in the use of hydroxyurea has been accumulated in older children. The benefits and risks of hydroxyurea for younger children and long-term risks in all patients will be evaluated in future investigations. Other promising therapies include butyrate compounds, clotrimazole, magnesium supplementation, poloxamer 188, antiadhesion agents, anticoagulant approaches, and nitric oxide. Hemopoietic transplantation remains the only curative therapy. However, several transgenic mouse models are available for studies of gene therapy or other treatment approaches on biochemical, cellular, and pathologic effects of mutant genes.     

Infiltrations of Epstein-Barr virus-carrying cells in granular lymphocyte-proliferative disorders corresponding to chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection

A 21-year-old man with granular lymphocyte-proliferative disorders (GLPD) associated with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is described. Chromosomal analyses revealed several clonal abnormalities and two of them were mainly repetitious. High copy numbers of monoclonal EBV genome were also detected in the proliferative large granular lymphocytes (LGLs), indicating the monoclonal expansion of EBV-infected LGLs. The patient had an indolent course for several years, and there was no evidence of infiltrations of his bone marrow until the end stage. At autopsy, microscopic studies revealed marked infiltrations of LGL in the liver and spleen, and the infiltrating cells were NK-cell immunophenotype. The infiltrated LGLs showed latency I.     

LUTEINIZING HORMONE RECEPTOR MUTATIONS IN DISORDERS OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND CANCER

Human male sexual development is regulated by chorionic gonadotropin (CG) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Aberrant sexual development caused by both activating and inactivating mutations of the human luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) have been described. All known activating mutations of the LHR are missense mutations caused by single base substitution. The most common activating mutation is the replacement of Asp-578 by Gly due to the substitution of A by G at nucleotide position 1733. All activating mutations are present in exon 11 which encodes the transmembrane domain of the receptor. Constitutive activity of the LHR causes LH releasing hormone-independent precocious puberty in boys and the autosomal dominant disorder familial male-limited precocious puberty (FMPP). Both germline and somatic activating mutations of the LHR have been found in patients with testicular tumors. Activating mutations have no effect on females. The molecular genetics of the inactivating mutations of the LHR are more variable and include single base substitution, partial gene deletion, and insertion. These mutations are not localized and are present in both the extracellular and transmembrane domain of the receptor. Inactivation of the LHR gives rise to the autosomal recessive disorder Leydig cell hypoplasia (LCH) and male hypogonadism or male pseudohermaphroditism. Severity of the clinical phenotype in LCH patients correlates with the amount of residual activity of the mutated receptor. Females are less affected by inactivating mutation of the LHR. Symptoms caused by homozygous inactivating mutation of the LHR include polycystic ovaries and primary amenorrhea.     

Resurgence of measles in Singapore: profile of hospital cases

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the profile of cases of measles seen at a general hospital during a recent outbreak that occurred despite a measles vaccination program. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective study from January 1991 to March 1998. All patients with measles (ICD code 055. 9) seen at the emergency unit or as inpatients were included. RESULTS: There were 87 cases identified. The diagnosis was clinical in all and proven serologically in 71%. Eighty-five per cent of the cases occurred between January 1997 and March 1998. There was a bi-modal age distribution with peaks in the very young (相似文献   

Personality profiles and heart rate variability (vagal tone) in children with recurrent abdominal pain

The aim of the study was to explore psychological factors and autonomic activity in children with recurrent abdominal pain and to compare them with those in a control group of healthy children. The Personality Inventory for Children was used for assessment of developmental, emotional and psychosocial factors in 25 children with recurrent abdominal pain (age, 7-15 y). Parasympathetic and sympathetic functions in these children and in 23 healthy control subjects (age, 7-13 y) were also investigated, non-invasively using a computerized polygraph. Vagal tone (parasympathetic function) was indexed by calculation of respiratory sinus arrhythmia in beats/min. Skin conductance (sympathetic function) was recorded by the constant current method. On the Personality Inventory for Children, 16 patients had high scores on somatic concern. Several patients had scores in the clinical range for depression, withdrawal and anxiety, but the mean scores for these personality profile scales were well within the normal range of healthy children. Interestingly, there was a spike on the L (Lie)-scale for most of the patients and 15 patients had scores above or close to the clinical cut-off value. As compared with the scores in healthy children, vagal tone and sympathetic tone were normal. Conclusion: Many children with recurrent abdominal pain have scores in the clinical range for depression, withdrawal, anxiety and L-scale indicating coping problems, denial and a trend towards somatic concern that may contribute to the evolution of abdominal pain. Autonomic nerve activity was not disturbed in these children.     

Overcoming surfactant inhibition with polymers

Inhibition of the function of pulmonary surfactant in the alveolar space is an important element of the pathophysiology of many lung diseases, including meconium aspiration syndrome, pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The known mechanisms by which surfactant dysfunction occurs are (a) competitive inhibition of phospholipid entry into the surface monolayer (e.g. by plasma proteins), and (b) infiltration and destabilization of the surface film by extraneous lipids (e.g. meconium-derived free fatty acids). Recent data suggest that addition of non-ionic polymers such as dextran and polyethylene glycol to surfactant mixtures may significantly improve resistance to inhibition. Polymers have been found to neutralize the effects of several different inhibitors, and can produce near-complete restoration of surfactant function. The anti-inhibitory properties of polymers, and their possible role as an adjunct to surfactant therapy, deserve further exploration.     

Understanding infant formula

The World Health organisation recommends breast feeding infants for the first six months of life. When this breast feeding does not occur either through parental choice or medical need, infant formulas will be required. There is a bewildering array of formulas on the UK market for many different requirements. When faced with an unsettled infant many parents (and healthcare professionals) will experiment with the infant formula available and then attend the paediatric clinic looking for help and advice. It is therefore essential that paediatricians understand what milks are available and what the key differences between different products are. This review attempts to provide a simple guide through many of the formulations currently available in the UK; and offers advice for the dietary management of the child with extra calorie requirements, infants with cow's milk protein allergy, gastro oesophageal reflux disease, apparent unresolved hunger and infantile colic. Whatever the underlying condition, there is likely to be an infant formula that is suitable in this generation of ever expanding formulations.