Comparative study of the atherogenecity of dietary trans, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on swine coronary arteries

Three groups of two-month-old swine were fed on basal diets supplemented with either oleic acid-rich safflower oil, lard or hydrogenated soybean oil in order to monitor the atherogenecity of various dietary fatty acids. The level of plasma triglyceride was highest in the safflower oil group and the level of plasma cholesterol was highest in the lard group. The degree of intimal thickening of the coronary arteries was most severe in the safflower oil group and lease severe in the hydrogenated fat group. Both the lard- and safflower oil-supplemented groups displayed lipid-rich coronary arterial lesions. The thickened intima of these two groups contained numerous activated smooth muscle cells, degenerated cells with or without stainable lipid and abundant cell debris. Cellular changes were less conspicuous in the coronary arteries from the hydrogenated fat group than in those from the other two groups.     

Health benefits of dietary fat reduction by a novel fat replacer: Mimix

The primary goals of this study were to identify any health benefits of the replacement of dietary fat with a novel fat replacer, Mimix, and to assure that the consumption of this fat replacer did not convey any deleterious health effects. Male, weanling, Fischer 344 rats were fed one of six diets containing between 5 and 20% w/w as fat for 8 weeks. These diets included two high fat diets (safflower oil or lard), a low fat diet and three diets where 15% of the fat in the high fat diets was replaced with various amounts of Mimix. When animals were fed a diet rich in saturated fat they consumed significantly more energy than other diet groups. When 15% saturated fat (lard) was replaced with safflower oil animals adjusted their food intake so that no difference in energy intake was observed between the high safflower diet and the low fat and Mimix diets. When the various Mimix fat replacements were compared to animals fed a high fat lard diet there was incomplete compensation of energy intake. Animals fed the high fat lard diet also had higher glucose and total serum cholesterol than their low fat and fat replacement counterparts. Feeding a high fat safflower oil diet to rats resulted in a significantly lower total serum cholesterol and serum triglyceride than all other diets. Replacement of dietary fat with Mimix demonstrated no deleterious effects on the heart, liver and intestinal tract that were all of normal weight, morphology and colour compared to other diet groups. Body composition analysis demonstrated that animals fed high fat diets had higher body fat mass at the expense of lean body mass. This was most obvious for animals fed high fat lard diets who had heavier epididymal fat pads. These data demonstrate that the replacement of dietary fat with the novel fat replacer Mimix can convey a number of health benefits in the absence of any deleterious effects.     

Health benefits of dietary fat reduction by a novel fat replacer: Mimix

The primary goals of this study were to identify any health benefits of the replacement of dietary fat with a novel fat replacer, Mimix, and to assure that the consumption of this fat replacer did not convey any deleterious health effects. Male, weanling, Fischer 344 rats were fed one of six diets containing between 5 and 20% w/w as fat for 8 weeks. These diets included two high fat diets (safflower oil or lard), a low fat diet and three diets where 15% of the fat in the high fat diets was replaced with various amounts of Mimix. When animals were fed a diet rich in saturated fat they consumed significantly more energy than other diet groups. When 15% saturated fat (lard) was replaced with safflower oil animals adjusted their food intake so that no difference in energy intake was observed between the high safflower diet and the low fat and Mimix diets. When the various Mimix fat replacements were compared to animals fed a high fat lard diet there was incomplete compensation of energy intake. Animals fed the high fat lard diet also had higher glucose and total serum cholesterol than their low fat and fat replacement counterparts. Feeding a high fat safflower oil diet to rats resulted in a significantly lower total serum cholesterol and serum triglyceride than all other diets. Replacement of dietary fat with Mimix demonstrated no deleterious effects on the heart, liver and intestinal tract that were all of normal weight, morphology and colour compared to other diet groups. Body composition analysis demonstrated that animals fed high fat diets had higher body fat mass at the expense of lean body mass. This was most obvious for animals fed high fat lard diets who had heavier epididymal fat pads. These data demonstrate that the replacement of dietary fat with the novel fat replacer Mimix can convey a number of health benefits in the absence of any deleterious effects.     

合成油的营养评价——(二)合成油饲料对实验性高胆固醇血症大鼠体重、血脂和肝脂成分的影响

在88g基础饲料中加入12g不同种类的油脂(合成油、猪油和豆油)和1％胆固醇喂养大鼠5周以诱导动物产生高脂血症,并以不加入胆固醇的豆油饲料作为正常对照。比较各组动物在实验期内的生长、血清脂质、肝脏脂质和某些内脏器官重量的改变。结果如下: (1)大鼠摄食含不同油脂的致高胆固醇血症饲料5周后,各组雄鼠的体重增加无明显的不同,雌鼠的体重增加则有显著的差别,即合成油组动物的增重显著较猪油组和对照组的为低。 (2)在各种油脂饲料中加入胆固醇都可使动物的肝重增大。猪油组和豆油组动物的肝脏有明显的脂肪肝病变。肝脂含量增加,肝胆固醇和甘油三酯大量积存(分别约为对照组的9-10倍和2-3倍)。而合成油组动物的肝脏外观表现正常,肝脂含量、肝胆固醇和甘油三酯水平则接近对照组的正常水平。 (3)在各种油脂饲料中加入胆固醇喂养大鼠,对雄鼠血清胆固醇水平的影响不明显,但引起雌鼠血清胆固醇的改变和对照组比较,猪油饲料使动物的血清胆固醇含量明显增高,豆 油和合成油饲料则可维持动物的血胆固醇含量于正常水平。血清甘油三酯水平则以合成油饲料组动物的为最高。 (4)在各种饲料中加入胆固醇除增大肝脏重量外,也使雌鼠的主动脉重量增高,但饲料油脂种类对其重量的影响不明显。 上述结果表明,当饲料中含有高水?     

Vitamin E adequacy of vegetable oils.

Young male rats were fed diets containing 20 per cent fat in the form of soybean oil, corn oil, safflower oil, or hydrogenated shortening, and their vitamin E status was assessed for twenty-seven weeks. On the basis of growth rate, in vitro red cell hemolysis, plasma creatine phosphokinase activity, and testicular development, soybean oil, corn oil, and shortening provided adequate vitamin E. Rats fed safflower oil had slight red cell hemolysis but were normal in other respects. When the tocopherols in corn oil were reduced by half, vitamin E status still appeared normal. Tissue levels of alpha- and gamma-tocopherols were determined in all groups, and the limitations of the dietary E:PUFA ratio are discussed.     

Long-term effect of fish oil diet on basal and stimulated plasma glucose and insulin levels in ob/ob mice

In this study, the ob/ob mouse model was used to investigate epidemiological evidence linking fish intake to relative reduction in incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus and glucose. We have investigated, in comparison to low and high fat diets, the effect of a fish oil diet on basal and stimulated plasma glucose and insulin levels in male and female ob/ob mice. Mice were fed for 12 months with a saturated fat diet containing 25% lard, with a low fat diet containing 5% soybean oil, with a polyunsaturated fat diet containing 25% safflower seed oil (n-6) or with polyunsaturated fat diet containing 23% fish oil (n-3). Total body weight increased to approximately 100 g at the end of the experiment, with the highest increase in the order of lard > safflower oil > fish oil > soybean oil diet. Intercurrent deaths were found especially in the fish oil diet group. Compared to the other diet groups, plasma insulin levels of the fish oil diet group were significantly increased 3 months after the start of the diet and remained higher for another 3 months. Thereafter, the level declined to those of the other diet groups. Glucose-tolerance tests at 3, 6, 8 and 10 months showed a tendency of more efficient tissue glucose uptake in the fish oil group compared to the other groups, which was in accordance with a higher plasma insulin levels. At 12 months, microscopy revealed an increased severity of hepatic brown pigment accumulation and extramedullary haematopoiesis in the spleen of mice fed with fish oil. We conclude that fish oil diet in ob/ob mice reduced the body weight gain and increased the glucose-induced insulin secretion. Fish oil diet also increased intercurrent mortality. However, a consistent course of death could not be established using morphological parameters.     

三种食用油对大鼠血脂、血小板功能、生物膜及脂质过氧化的影响

采用成年ＳＤ大鼠，分别喂给猪油、米糠油和玉米油，观察其对血脂、血小板功能、生物膜及脂质过氧化的影响。结果表明，与猪油组比较，米糠油和玉米油组血清ＴＣ、ＴＧ、ＬＤＬ－Ｃ、ＴＣ／ＨＤＬ－Ｃ均较低，血浆６－Ｋ－ＰＧＦ１２／ＴＸＢ２比值较高，血小板聚集率较低，膜磷脂中多不饱和脂肪酸含量较多，膜流动性较大，心、肝、脑组织中ＭＤＡ含量较高，肝超氧化物歧化酶活性较低，易于脂质过氧化。米糠油和玉米油组之间则无明显差异。     

A Lard and Soybean Oil Mixture Alleviates Low-Fat–High-Carbohydrate Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice

Dietary habit is highly related to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Low-fat–high-carbohydrate (LFHC) diets could induce lean NAFLD in Asians. Previously, we found that a lard and soybean oil mixture reduced fat accumulation with a medium-fat diet; therefore, in this study, we evaluated the effect of a lard and soybean oil mixture (LFHC diet) on NAFLD and its underlying mechanisms. Mice in groups were fed with lard, soybean oil, or a lard and soybean oil mixture—an LFHC diet—separately. Our results showed that mixed oil significantly inhibited serum triglyceride, liver triglyceride, serum free fatty acids (FFAs), and liver FFAs compared with soybean oil or lard, and we found fewer inflammatory cells in mice fed with mixed oil. RNA-seq results indicate that mixed oil reduced FFAs transportation into the liver via decreasing liver fatty acid-binding protein 2 expression, inhibited oxidative phosphorylation via tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 6 downregulation, and alleviated inflammation via downregulating inflammatory cytokine. The liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry results showed that the mixed oil promoted bile acid conjugated with taurine and glycine, thus activating G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 for improved lipids metabolism. In conclusion, the lard and soybean oil mixture alleviated NAFLD.     

Adaptive response of rat pancreatic lipase to dietary fat: effects of amount and type of fat

Pancreatic lipase adapts to changes in dietary fat by parallel changes in synthesis. The adaptation to changes in type of dietary fat (saturation or chain length) is unclear. The effects of changes in amount and type of dietary fat were examined in weanling rats fed for 1 wk diets low in fat (LF) with 10% kcal as corn oil, moderate in fat (MF) with 40% kcal as fat (corn oil, lard, safflower oil, butter, olive oil or coconut oil), or high in fat (HF) with 67% kcal as fat (as for MF). Growth was comparable among rats fed these diets. Pancreatic lipase activity increased in all HF diets (180%) compared to the LF diet. In MF diets, only the highly unsaturated safflower oil increased pancreatic lipase (162%) compared to the LF diet. Food consumption varied, but was not related to the response of pancreatic lipase. When weanling rats were fed diets with 11, 40, 47, 54, 67 and 75% kcal as corn oil, pancreatic lipase activity was not stimulated at or below 47% kcal fat, but was maximally stimulated (twofold) by 54 or 67% fat. These findings suggest that pancreatic lipase activity adapts primarily to the amount of dietary fat and responds to the type of fat only below the threshold level of dietary fat (47% kcal).     

Less body fat accumulation in rats fed a safflower oil diet than in rats fed a beef tallow diet

The effects on body fat accumulation of long-term feeding of high fat diets of differing fatty acid composition were studied in rats. The rats were meal-fed isoenergetic diets based on safflower oil or beef tallow for 4 mo. Each diet was freshly prepared every day throughout the experimental period. Oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production for 6 h after meals were measured between the 50th and 54th d of the experimental period. Oxygen consumption for 3 h after meals was significantly greater in the safflower oil diet group than in the beef tallow diet group, indicating greater diet-induced thermogenesis in the former group. From the assessment of respiratory quotient, the fat oxidation rate was also higher in the former. After the experimental period (4 mo), body fat accumulation was significantly less in the rats fed safflower oil. This difference was, at least in part, ascribed to increased diet-induced thermogenesis and fat oxidation. Serum triacylglycerol level was markedly lower in the rats fed safflower oil than in those fed beef tallow. The lipoprotein lipase activities in heart and soleus muscle after meals appeared to be higher in the former than in the latter. These results suggest that the consumption of the safflower oil diet increased lipoprotein lipase activity in heart and skeletal muscle, resulting in the elevation of fat oxidation rate and the depression of serum triacylglycerol level.     

猪油与豆油对大鼠主动脉影响的扫描电镜观察

本实验观察了猪油与豆油对大鼠血脂水平和主动脉形态学改变的影响。成年雄性Ｗｉｓｔａｒ大鼠２４只分为猪油组、豆油组和对照组。观察结果表明：饲以高脂膳食２０天后，高脂组大鼠血清胆固醇水平显著高于对照组，猪油组显著高于豆油组。此后４０天，各组动物血清胆固醇含量维持在相对稳定的水平。至６０天时，在扫描电镜下可见高脂组大鼠主动脉发生病变，主要内皮细胞肿胀变形，排列紊乱，偶可见微血栓形成。猪组病变重于豆油组。     

Serum and liver lipids in rats and chicks fed with diets containing different oils

OBJECTIVES: Because dietary fat composition is determinant for serum cholesterol level, which is related to cardiovascular disease, we evaluated the effects of diets containing saturated (coconut oil) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (soybean oil) supplemented or not with dietary cholesterol on serum and liver lipid composition in two animal species. METHODS: Male Wistar rats (21 d old) were assigned to one of seven groups and fed with commercial diet or diets containing 5% or 20% soybean oil or 20% coconut oil with or without 1% cholesterol. Chicks were assigned to one of four groups and fed with diets containing 15% soybean oil or 15% coconut oil with or without 1% cholesterol. RESULTS: In rats, the accumulations of hepatic cholesterol and triacylglycerols were higher in the group fed 20% soybean oil and 1% cholesterol than in the group fed 20% coconut fat and 1% cholesterol. The highest serum levels of cholesterol and triacylglycerols were observed in the group fed coconut oil and cholesterol, compared with the group fed soybean oil and cholesterol. Triacylglycerol, high-density lipoprotein, and total cholesterol serum levels increased with diet containing coconut oil and cholesterol. In chicks, the highest hepatic cholesterol accumulation occurred in the group fed 15% coconut fat and 1% cholesterol. Total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels increased with diet containing coconut oil and cholesterol, although none of these diets modified serum triacylglycerol levels. CONCLUSIONS: The type of experimental animal model and the diet composition influence lipid metabolism.     

不同膳食脂肪对糖耐量及胰岛素敏感性的影响

目的:比较4种膳食脂肪对大鼠糖耐量及胰岛素敏感性的影响。方法:将50只SD大鼠随机分为5组,分别为紫苏油组、葵花籽油组、橄榄油组、猪油组和基础饲料组。各膳食脂肪组大鼠的脂肪摄入量占总能量的30.4%。喂养6 w后,进行口服葡萄糖耐量试验(OGTT),测定血清胰岛素、甘油三酯、总胆固醇等指标,并计算胰岛素敏感指数(ISI)。同时分离附睾脂肪垫并称重。结果:与基础饲料组相比,猪油组大鼠葡萄糖餐后2 h血糖及胰岛素显著升高,ISI显著降低;葵花籽油组和橄榄油组大鼠的餐后2 h血糖显著低于猪油组,ISI显著高于猪油组;紫苏油组大鼠空腹及餐后2h血糖、胰岛素水平均显著低于猪油组,ISI高于猪油组,其中空腹血糖还低于葵花籽油组、橄榄油组和基础饲料组,ISI高于上述组。紫苏油组血清甘油三酯、总胆固醇水平显著低于猪油组和基础饲料组,大鼠附睾脂肪垫相对重量显著低于猪油组。结论:猪油可促使胰岛素抵抗及高血糖的发生,而紫苏油可提高大鼠胰岛素敏感性、改善糖代谢;葵花籽油和橄榄油对胰岛素敏感性和糖耐量的作用介于紫苏油和猪油之间。紫苏油对糖代谢的有利作用可能与其降低血中甘油三酯水平、减少体内脂肪堆积有关。     

不同食用油对大鼠机体脂类与过氧化脂类含量的影响

本文报告了茶油、菜油、色拉油、豆油和猪油对大鼠机体脂类水平和脂类过氧化作用的影响及两者的相关关系。结果表明:茶油和豆油有良好的阻止血脂升高的作用。血浆卵磷脂胆固醇酰基转移酶的活性在4种植物油组相近(80.26～94.03nmol/ml.h),猪油组最低(57.07nmol/ml.h)。饲猪油者肝及主动脉中脂类含量偏高。血清及心、肝、肾组织中过氧化脂类(LPO)含量以猪油组最高,茶油组较低。此外,豆油有升高组织中LPO含量的作用,而菜油和色拉油相反。实验后,饲以富含单不饱和脂肪酸油脂者,其红细胞超氧化物歧化酶活力升高,饲豆油和猪油者降低。实验末大鼠血清及肝组织中LPO与脂类(TC、TG)含量呈显著正相关(P<0.01),心,脑中此关系不明显。     

Differential effects of high-fat-diet rich in lard oil or soybean oil on osteopontin expression and inflammation of adipose tissue in diet-induced obese rats

Purpose

To examine the effect of different dietary fat types on osteopontin (OPN) expressions and inflammation of adipose tissues in diet-induced obese rats.

Methods

Male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly assigned to one control group fed standard diet (LF, n = 10) and two high-fat diet groups fed isoenergy diet rich in lard or soybean oil (HL or HS, n = 45 each). Diet-induced obese rats in HL and HS group were then subdivided into two groups either continuously fed high-fat diet or switched to low-fat diet for 8 more weeks. Fasting serum glucose, insulin, and OPN concentrations were assayed and QUICKI was calculated; the expression of OPN, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, NF-κB, and F4/80 in adipose tissue was determined.

Results

Both high-fat diets lead to comparable development of obesity characterized by insulin resistance and adipose tissue inflammation. Obese rats continuously fed high-fat diet rich in lard oil exhibited the highest fasting serum insulin level and adipose tissue OPN, F4/80, TNF-α, and NF-κB expression level. In both high-fat diet groups, switching to low-fat diet resulted in less intra-abdominal fat mass, decreased expression of F4/80, TNF-α, and NF-κB, while decreased OPN expression was only observed in lard oil fed rats after switching to low-fat diet.

Conclusions

Reducing diet fat or replacing lard oil with soybean oil in high-fat diet alleviates obesity-related inflammation and insulin resistance by attenuating the upregulation of OPN and macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue induced by high-fat diet.     

Body fat accumulation is greater in rats fed a beef tallow diet than in rats fed a safflower or soybean oil diet

The effects of dietary fats , consisting of different fatty acids, on body fat accumulation and uncoupling protein (UCP) in interscapular brown adipose tissue were studied in rats. Metabolisable energy in experimental diets based on safflower oil, soybean oil or beef tallow was measured strictly (experiment 1). Male Wistar rats were then meal-fed an isoenergetic diet for 8 weeks (experiment 2). Each group of rats showed the same weight gain during the 8-week experimental period. Carcass fat content was greater in rats fed the beef tallow diet than in those fed the with the safflower or soybean oil diets, whereas the weight of abdominal adipose tissue was the same for all three dietary groups. Gene expression of UCP1 and the UCP content of the interscapular brown adipose tissue was lower in the beef tallow diet group than in the other dietary groups. A negative correlation was observed between carcass fat content and n-6 unsaturated fatty acid content in dietary fats. These results suggest that the greater body fat accumulation in rats fed the beef tallow diet results from lower expression of UCP1 mRNA and lower UCP content in brown adipose tissue. n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids may be the most effective fatty acids in limiting body fat.     

Dietary phospholipid-dependent reductions in gene expression and activity of liver enzymes in fatty acid synthesis in fasted-refed rats.

The effects of dietary soybean phospholipid, its hydrogenation product and safflower phospholipid on gene expression and the activity of hepatic enzymes in fatty acid biosynthesis were examined in fasted-refed rats. Phospholipid composition of soybean phospholipid and its hydrogenation product were the same, but the hydrogenation product contained negligible amounts of unsaturated fatty acids. Among phospholipid classes, lysophosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylinositol proportions were slightly higher in safflower phospholipid than in soybean phospholipid or its hydrogenation product. Rats were fasted for 2 d and refed a fat-free diet or a diet containing 4% fatty acids either as soybean oil or various phospholipid preparations for 3 d. Compared to the fat-free diet, the soybean oil diet only slightly decreased specific, but not total hepatic fatty acid synthetase and malic enzyme activity, and it was totally ineffective in modulating glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and pyruvate kinase activity under our experimental conditions. The diets containing phospholipids, however, markedly decreased the activity of these enzymes. The extent of reduction was somewhat attenuated with hydrogenated soybean phospholipid as compared with soybean and safflower phospholipids. Dot and Northern blot hybridization using specific cDNA probes showed that, compared to a fat-free diet, diets containing phospholipids profoundly decreased the hepatic mRNA levels of enzymes in fatty acid synthesis. Soybean oil, however, only marginally affected these parameters. Hepatic mRNA levels for enzymes correlated well with enzyme activity. Dietary phospholipids therefore appear to have decreased enzyme activity in fatty acid synthesis primarily by suppressing the mRNA levels of these enzymes. Compared to soybean oil, hydrogenated soybean phospholipid is still effective in decreasing the activity and mRNA level of enzymes in fatty acid synthesis. Therefore, it is difficult to ascribe the potent physiological activity of phospholipid in reducing fatty acid synthesis entirely to polyunsaturated fatty acid moiety.     

Effect of type and amount of dietary fat on concentration of cholesterol in blood plasma and tissues of rabbits

Rabbits were fed skim milk-based diets containing by weight either 14% soybean oil, 28% soybean oil, 14% tallow or 28% tallow. A control group was fed a commerical stock diet. Plasma cholesterol concentration was monitored for 10 weeks, after which cholesterol concentrations of liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, brain, heart, aorta, kidney, skin and intestinal mucosa were determined. Feeding soybean oil diets (relatively high content of polyunsaturated fat by acids) resulted in lesser concentrations of cholesterol in blood plasma than did feeding tallow diets (greater content of saturated fatty acids). Conversely, cholesterol contents were greater in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, heart, aorta, kidney, skin and intestinal mucosa of rabbits fed soybean oil diets. Cholesterol contents of liver and brain were unaffected by type of dietary fat. Our results demonstrate that the degree of saturation of fat in a milk-based diet of rabbits will influence the partitioning of cholesterol between the blood and several other tissues and organs.     

Nutritional regulation of hepatic lipogenesis in the rat

In vivo fatty acid synthesis and the in vitro activity of the enzymes fatty acid synthase, ATP citrate lyase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase were examined in the livers of rats fed fat free, high carbohydrate (HC) diet or those fed diets containing 44% calories from either corn oil or hydrogenated soybean oil. Fat free diet was fed up to 96 h after an initial starvation for 48 h, while the fat containing diets were fed up to 48 h after an initial refeeding of HC diet for 48 h. Compared to the HC diet both the fat diets caused marked inhibition of fatty acid synthesis and the activity of the enzymes tested. The inhibition of lipogenic parameters by the two fat diets was comparable. Fatty acid synthesis responded more rapidly to the dietary changes as compared to the time taken by the enzymes.     

Influence of dietary cis and trans fats on DMH-induced colon tumors, steroid excretion, and eicosanoid production in rats prone to colon cancer

The effect of geometrical isomerism of dietary fats on colon tumorigenesis was studied in male and female rats of a strain prone to colon cancer (Wistar-Furth-Osaka). The rats were fed purified diets containing either partially hydrogenated corn oil (trans fat) or high-oleic safflower (cis fat) at the 5% level for one week and received a single oral dose of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. The difference in the fatty acid composition of dietary fats was confined solely to the geometry of octadecenoate. An appropriate level of linoleic acid (2% of total energy) was supplied. After about 60 weeks, neither fat-type nor sex-dependent differences in the incidence of colon and small intestinal tumors was observed. The fecal excretion of neutral but not acidic steroids was higher in male rats fed the trans fat than in those fed the cis fat, but the composition remained almost unchanged. Aortic production of prostacyclin and the plasma concentration of thromboxane B2 were not influenced by dietary fats, although these were significantly higher in females, irregardless of the fat source. Thus, trans fat behaved much like the cis fat in various parameters, except for steroid excretion.