Towards the Consistent Inclusion of People With Aphasia in Stroke Research Irrespective of Discipline

People with aphasia have been systematically excluded from stroke research or included without the necessary modifications, threatening external study validity. In this paper, we propose that 1) the inclusion of people with aphasia should be considered as standard in stroke research irrespective of discipline and that 2) modifications should be made to stroke research procedures to support people with aphasia to achieve meaningful and valid inclusion. We argue that outright exclusion of this heterogenous population from stroke research based purely on a diagnosis of aphasia is rarely required and present a rationale for deliberate inclusion of people with aphasia in stroke research. The purpose of this paper is fourfold: 1) to highlight the issue and implications of excluding people with aphasia from stroke research; 2) to acknowledge the current barriers to including people with aphasia in stroke research; 3) to provide stroke researchers with methods to enable inclusion, including recommendations, resources, and guidance; and 4) to consider research needed to develop aphasia inclusive practices in stroke research.     

Post-stroke aphasia prognosis: a review of patient-related and stroke-related factors

Rationale, aims and objectives Recovery of language function in individuals with post‐stroke aphasia is associated with a variety of patient and stroke‐related indices. Amidst a complex interaction of a multitude of variables, clinicians are faced with the arduous challenge of predicting aphasia recovery patterns and subsequently, long‐term outcomes in these individuals. Unfortunately, predictive factors are highly variable making prognosis of aphasia recovery difficult. Therefore, the objective of this review was to assess the influence of patient‐related and stroke‐related factors on language recovery in individuals with post‐stroke aphasia. Methods We completed a literature review to assess and identify evidence‐based patient and stroke‐related variables shown to be influential in aphasia recovery. Results A range of patient‐related (gender, handedness, age, education, socio‐economic status and intelligence) and stroke‐related indices (initial severity, lesion site and lesion size) were identified as potential influential factors to post‐stroke aphasia recovery. Initial severity of aphasia emerged as the factor most predictive of long‐term aphasia recovery. Other influential factors of post‐stroke language recovery included lesion site and size. Conclusions Stroke‐related factors, including aphasia severity, lesion site and lesion size, appear most critical to post‐stroke aphasia recovery. The findings presented in this review offer clinicians an evidenced‐based framework to assist in prediction of post‐stroke aphasia recovery patterns and subsequent long‐term functional communication outcomes.     

脑卒中失语症患者的康复治疗

为探讨康复训练对失语的治疗作用,对８６例脑卒中后失语症患者进行诊断分型,并采用中国康复研究中心失语检查法和Ｓｃｈｕｅｌｌ刺激法进行语言训练。结果：脑卒中失语症患者语言训练疗效明显,其中皮质下失语、Ｂｒｏｃｅａ失语、命名性失语,运动性失语预后较好。     

Spreading Depolarization May Link Migraine and Stroke

Migraine increases the risk of stroke, particularly in young and otherwise healthy adults. Being the most frequent neurological condition, migraine prevalence is on a par with that of other common stroke risk factors, such as diabetes or hypertension. Several patterns of association have emerged: (1) migraine and stroke share a common association (eg, vasculopathies, patent foramen ovale, or pulmonary A‐V malformations); (2) injury to the arterial wall such as acute arterial dissections can present as migraine aura attacks or stroke; (3) strokes rarely develop during a migraine attack, as described for “migrainous stroke.” Increasing experimental evidence suggests that cerebral hyperexcitability and enhanced susceptibility to spreading depolarization, the electrophysiologic event underlying migraine, may serve as a mechanism underlying the migraine‐stroke association. Mice carrying human vascular or neuronal migraine mutations exhibit an enhanced susceptibility to spreading depolarization while being particularly vulnerable to cerebral ischemia. The severe stroke phenotype in migraine mutant mice can be prevented by suppressing spreading depolarization. If confirmed in the clinical setting, inhibiting spreading depolarization might protect migraineurs at stroke risk as well as decrease attacks of migraine.     

Current views of the risk of stroke for migraine with and migraine without aura

The association between migraine and stroke is complex and is a continued focus of attention. Several observational studies have identified migraine as an independent risk factor for ischemic stroke. However, a distinction should be made between migraine with and migraine without aura. The migraine-stroke association is mostly apparent for young women with migraine with aura. The association between migraine with aura and stroke is weaker in older age groups, which may be due to the fact that traditional cardiovascular risk factors are more prominent with increasing age. Most studies have not found an association between migraine without aura and ischemic stroke. Although there are several hypotheses about the biologic link between migraine with aura and ischemic stroke, the precise mechanisms remain unclear. However, because the absolute risk of stroke is low in patients with migraine with aura, and migraine without aura is likely not associated with ischemic stroke, most migraine patients will not experience a stroke event.     

Incidence and Profile of Inpatient Stroke-Induced Aphasia in Ontario, Canada

Dickey L, Kagan A, Lindsay MP, Fang J, Rowland A, Black S. Incidence and profile of inpatient stroke-induced aphasia in Ontario, Canada.

Objectives

To determine the incidence rate of inpatient stroke-induced aphasia in Ontario, Canada, and to examine the demographic and clinical characteristics for stroke patients with and without aphasia.

Design

Age- and sex-specific incidence rates for aphasia in Ontario were calculated using the Ontario Stroke Audit. In addition, data collected from the Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network (RCSN) were used to determine the demographic and clinical characteristics for stroke patients with and without aphasia.

Setting

All hospitals and regional stroke centers in Ontario, Canada.

Participants

The Ontario Stroke Audit is a representative weighted sample of more than 3000 stroke inpatients admitted to emergency departments in all hospitals in Ontario within the 2004/2005 fiscal year. RCSN data included a cohort of more than 15,000 consecutive patients presenting with stroke at 12 regional stroke centers in Ontario from 2003 to 2007.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Main Outcome Measures

Presence of aphasic symptoms on admission to hospital and at discharge, age and sex, stroke type and severity, severity of disability, services received in hospital, length of stay, and discharge destination.

Results

Thirty-five percent (1131/3207) of adult patients admitted with a diagnosis of stroke in the province of Ontario during the 2004 to 2005 Ontario Stroke Audit had symptoms of aphasia at the time of discharge. This amounts to an incidence rate of 60 per 100,000 persons per year. Risk of aphasia increased significantly with age. In comparison with nonaphasic stroke patients, patients with aphasia were older, presented with more severe strokes on admission, had more severe disability, and were more frequently discharged to long-term care and/or rehabilitation (unadjusted results). Adjusting for stroke severity, age, sex, comorbidity, and stroke subtype, the presence of aphasia was found to be an independent predictor of longer hospital stays, increased use of rehabilitation services, and higher rates of thrombolytic therapy.

Conclusions

A significant number of people with stroke experience aphasia, with advancing age associated with a higher risk. The profile and patterns for stroke patients with aphasia differed significantly from those who did not experience aphasia as a residual disability after stroke, particularly in relation to service usage. Given the personal and system cost associated with aphasia, best practices in the area of stroke should include recommendations on how to best serve this population throughout the clinical pathway.     

Migraine with prolonged aphasic aura associated with a CACNA1A mutation: A case report and narrative review

Objective

To demonstrate that a known CACNA1A variant is associated with a phenotype of prolonged aphasic aura without hemiparesis.

Background

The usual differential diagnosis of prolonged aphasia without hemiparesis includes vascular disease, seizure, metabolic derangements, and migraine. Genetic mutations in the CACNA1A gene can lead to a myriad of phenotypes, including familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) type 1, an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by an aura of unilateral, sometimes prolonged weakness. Though aphasia is a common feature of migraine aura, with or without hemiparesis, aphasia without hemiparesis has not been reported with CACNA1A mutations.

Methods

We report the case of a 51-year-old male who presented with a history of recurrent episodes of aphasia without hemiparesis lasting days to weeks. His headache was left sided and was heralded by what his family described as “confusion.” On examination, he had global aphasia without other focal findings. Family history revealed several relatives with a history of severe headaches with neurologic deficits including aphasia and/or weakness. Imaging revealed T2 hyperintensities in the left parietal/temporal/occipital regions on MRI scan with corresponding hyperperfusion on SPECT. Genetic testing revealed a missense mutation in the CACNA1A gene.

Conclusions

This case expands the phenotypic spectrum of the CACNA1A mutation and FHM to include prolonged aphasic aura without hemiparesis. Our patient's SPECT imaging demonstrated hyperperfusion in areas correlating with aura symptoms which can occur in prolonged aura.     

脑卒中后失语的评测及训练

目的　探讨以舒尔氏(Schuell)刺激法为主的言语训练方法对脑卒中后失语症的疗效及机理。方法　对12例脑血管意外后失语症患者进行系统训练,在治疗前后运用改良波士顿诊断性失语症检查法(BDAE)评估其语言功能,并进行比较。结果　12例患者治疗后在言语表达、阅读理解等方面有明显改善(P<0.01),听理解、书写能力有改善(P<0.05)。结论　以舒尔氏刺激法为主的语言治疗对脑卒中后失语症的康复有积极疗效。     

Migraine and ischaemic vascular events

An association between migraine and ischaemic vascular events, particularly ischaemic stroke, has been debated for many years. The pathophysiology of migraine has been explored in detail, and it is known that a dysfunction of brain cells and arteries is a major component of this disorder. The involvement of cerebral arteries during the migraine attack as well as the high prevalence of migraine among young individuals with ischaemic stroke has led to the hypothesis that migraine may be a risk factor for ischaemic stroke. Furthermore, there is evidence that the vascular nature of migraine is not limited to meningeal blood vessels and that migraine and overall cardiovascular disease may share aetiological pathways. The aim of this review is to summarize the epidemiological evidence that links migraine with ischaemic stroke and ischaemic heart disease and to discuss potential biological mechanisms.     

Migraine and cerebrovascular disease

Migraine and cerebrovascular disease are linked in different ways: migraine may be a potential cause of stroke as in migrainous infarction, headache may be a symptom of cerebrovascular disease and also a risk factor for stroke, the association of migraine and stroke may constitute specific syndromes such as CADASIL and MELAS. The new IHS 2003 criteria, though preserving their main structure, have changed the terminology regarding secondary headaches, now described as “attributed to” another disease rather than “associated with” it. The more detailed knowledge of causal links between the underlying disorder and headache, has allowed to strengthen the terminology. Many cerebrovascular disorders as cerebral haemorrhage, venous sinus thrombosis, carotid or vertebral dissections and ischaemic stroke may present with a headache or be followed by it. In subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) headache may constitute an important warning sign before the bleeding. An interesting issue is the hypothesis that migraine may be a potential risk factor for stroke. Recent studies have underlined the increased relative risk of ischemic stroke in female migraineurs. Many potential mechanisms have been hypothesized: (1) alterations of vasoreactivity due to vessel wall dysfunction, (2) release of vasoactive substances during migraine, (3) platelet hyperactivity as expression of serotoninergic dysfunction in migraineurs, (4) intriguing studies have described a high prevalence of migraine with aura in stroke patients with patent foramen ovale (PFO). Differential diagnosis between migraine and stroke remains fundamental: some types of migraine can mimic cerebrovascular disease such as familial hemiplegic migraine, and basilar migraine. Migraine and stroke may be part of syndromic complexes as in CADASIL and MELAS. In conclusion migraine is a risk factor for cerebrovascular disease, it may be the cause of stroke as in migrainous infarctions, stroke may induce headache which may be a relevant symptom of cerebrovascular disease, yet migraine remains an essentially benign condition.     

Comorbid neuropathologies in migraine

The identification of comorbid disorders in migraineurs is important since it may impose therapeutic challenges and limit treatment options. Moreover, the study of comorbidity might lead to improve our knowledge about causes and consequences of migraine. Comorbid neuropathologies in migraine may involve mood disorders (depression, mania, anxiety, panic attacks), epilepsy, essential tremor, stroke, and white matter abnormalities. Particularly, a complex bidirectional relation exists between migraine and stroke, including migraine as a risk factor for cerebral ischemia, migraine caused by cerebral ischemia, migraine as a cause of stroke, migraine mimicking cerebral ischemia, migraine and cerebral ischemia sharing a common cause, and migraine associated with subclinical vascular brain lesions.     

脑卒中后汉语失语症病变部位及其自然恢复的初步研究

目的：前瞻性研究脑卒中后汉语失语症类型与病变部位的关系及对其自然恢复的影响。方法：脑卒中后汉语失语症患者30例分别在脑卒中后第10.5d,1,2,4及6个月时，用同一套语言测评材料进行语言评定。结果：同一病变部位所致失语症的类型可不同。最复杂的是基底节，并且同一类型失语症可由不同病变部位产生。30例不同类型失语症患者的语言能力在6个月内均获得不同程度的自然恢复。除完全性失语外，各类失语在第1-2个月内恢复最明显。听理解，口语表达和阅读恢复最好，其次为复述，书写的恢复最差。丘脑性失语和基底节性失语恢复最好。运动性失语恢复较好，感觉性失语恢复较差。完全性失语恢复最差。经皮质失语和传导性失语因病例数太少而不能充分反映其自然恢复情况。结论：脑卒中后汉语失语症的病变部位与类型关系复杂。其自然恢复与失语症类型有关。     

The rate and extent of improvement with therapy from the different types of aphasia in the first year after stroke

OBJECTIVE: To examine the rate and extent of improvement from the different types of aphasia in the first year after stroke. DESIGN: A prospective longitudinal study. SETTING: A specialist stroke unit. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-five aphasic patients with first-ever stroke. INTERVENTION: The type of aphasia was classified according to the criteria of the Western Aphasia Battery. The Western Aphasia Battery aphasia quotient was used to measure the initial severity and the rate and extent of improvement from aphasia. Assessments were made at baseline and 4, 8, 12 and 24 weeks later. RESULTS: The median percentage increase in the Western Aphasia Battery aphasia quotient was statistically higher in patients with Broca's aphasia than in the other groups at all weeks. Patients with Wernicke's aphasia had a significantly greater median percentage increase in their aphasia quotient than those with conduction and anomic aphasia at weeks 12 and 24, but less than patients with global aphasia at week 24. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with Broca's aphasia appear to have the best prognosis for improvement of language function in the first year of stroke. The extent of improvement in patients with global aphasia is better than that of patients with Wernicke's aphasia.     

Aphasia friendly written health information: content and design characteristics

People with aphasia need communicatively accessible written health information. Healthcare providers require knowledge of how to develop printed education materials (PEMs) in formats that people with aphasia prefer and can read. This study aimed to explore formatting characteristics considered to be barriers and facilitators to reading PEMs. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 40 adults with aphasia who were selected using maximum variation sampling across aphasia severity, reading ability, and time post-stroke. Participants were shown stroke and aphasia PEMs obtained from the recruiting stroke services, asked to rank them from most liked to least liked, and comment on factors that made the PEMs easier and harder to read. The majority of participants ranked the aphasia friendly stroke (56.4%, n = 22) and aphasia (87.2%, n = 34) PEMs as most liked. Forty-five facilitator and 46 barrier codes were identified using qualitative content analysis and grouped into two categories; (1) content characteristics and (2) design characteristics. Findings support many of the recommendations found within the literature for developing best practice PEMs and accessible information for other patient groups. Routine consideration of the facilitators and barriers identified will contribute to making written information more accessible to people with aphasia.     

Use of combined hormonal contraception and stroke: A case-control study of the impact of migraine type and estrogen dose on ischemic stroke risk

Objective

To clarify how factors such as estrogen dose and migraine history (including migraine subtype) impact ischemic stroke risks associated with combined hormonal contraceptive (CHC) use.

Background

CHC use in those with migraine with aura has been restricted due to concerns about stroke risk.

Methods

We conducted a case-control analysis of stroke risk associated with estrogen dose and migraine history among CHC users in a large tertiary care center. All women aged 18–55 who used a CHC between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2019, were identified. Those with a stroke diagnosis were identified using ICD codes and confirmed via chart and imaging review. Details of personal and family medical history, stroke evaluation, ethinyl estradiol dosing (EE; ≥30 vs. <30 μg), and demographics were collected. From a random sample of 20,000 CHC users without stroke, a control cohort (n = 635) was identified and matched based on patient characteristics, medical and family histories, as well as stroke risk factors, to assess association between migraine diagnosis, migraine subtype, estrogen dose, and stroke.

Results

Of the 203,853 CHC users in our cohort, 127 had confirmed stroke (0.06%; CI 0.05%, 0.07%). In unadjusted analyses, a higher number of patients in the case cohort had a diagnosis of migraine (34/127, 26.8%) compared to controls (109/635, 17.2%; p = 0.011). Stroke risk was higher with ≥30-μg EE doses compared to those using a <30-μg dose (OR, 1.52; CI 1.02, 2.26; p = 0.040). Compared to no migraine, personal history of migraine increased the odds of stroke (OR, 2.00; CI 1.27, 3.17; p = 0.003). Compared to no migraine, stroke risk was not significantly increased in those with migraine with aura, but migraine without aura increased the risk (OR, 2.35; CI 1.32, 4.2; p = 0.004).

Conclusions

Overall stroke risk in our cohort of CHC users was low. When CHCs are used in those with migraine, formulations containing ≤30 μg EE are preferred. Shared decision-making should include discussions about ischemic stroke risks in patients with migraine, even those without aura.     

Migrainous Infarction in a Patient With Sporadic Hemiplegic Migraine and Cystic Fibrosis: A 99mTc-HMPAO Brain SPECT Study

Genetic mutations of sporadic hemiplegic migraine (SHM) are mostly unknown. SHM pathophysiology relies on cortical spreading depression (CSD), which might be responsible for ischemic brain infarction. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by a monogenic mutation of the chlorine transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), possibly altering brain excitability. We describe the case of a patient with CF, who had a migrainous stroke during an SHM attack. A 32-year-old Caucasian male was diagnosed with CF, with heterozygotic delta F508/unknown CFTR mutation. The patient experiences bouts of coughing sometimes triggering SHM attacks with visual phosphenes, aphasia, right-sided paresthesia, and hemiparesis. He had a 48-hour hemiparesis triggered by a bout of coughing with hemoptysis, loss of consciousness, and severe hypoxia-hypercapnia. MRI demonstrated transient diffusion hyperintensity in the left frontal-parietal-occipital regions resulting in a permanent infarction in the primary motor area. Later, a brain perfusion SPECT showed persistent diffuse hypoperfusion in the territories involved in diffusion-weighted imaging alteration. Migrainous infarction, depending on the co-occurrence of 2 strictly related phenomena, CSD and hypoxia, appears to be the most plausible explanation. Brain SPECT hypoperfusion suggests a more extensive permanent neuronal loss in territories affected by aura. CF may be then a risk factor for hemiplegic migraine and stroke since bouts of coughing can facilitate brain hypoxia, triggering auras.     

强制性诱导语言治疗对脑卒中后慢性失语症的效果观察

目的探讨短期强制性诱导语言治疗对脑卒中后慢性失语症的疗效。方法30 例脑卒中后慢性失语症患者接受共30 h言语康复训练,对照组(n=15)为传统言语康复训练,治疗组(n=15)为每天3 h 强制性诱导语言治疗。治疗前后采用西方失语症成套测验(WAB)和交流能力问卷(CAL)进行评定。结果治疗后,治疗组WAB口语表达、命名及复述功能显著改善(P<0.001),听理解恢复不明显(P=0.066);对照组口语表达显著改善(P<0.001)。治疗后,治疗组CAL评分显著改善(P<0.001)。结论强制性诱导语言治疗可短期内明显改善脑卒中后慢性失语症患者的语言功能。     

Migraine and Stroke: A Continuum of Association in Adults

Migraine and stroke are the most common neurovascular disorders affecting adults. Migraine, particularly with aura, is associated with increased stroke risk both during and between attacks; as such, migraine may be viewed as a potentially modifiable risk factor for stroke. The exact mechanism by which migraine can predispose to stroke remains uncertain.     

Treatment of Complicated Migraine with Sublingual Nifedipine

SYNOPSIS
The term complicated migraine is used when the neurologic deficits in classic migraine are intense or alarmingly prolonged. Its manifestations are felt secondary to a vasoregulatory disorder of cerebral vessels. The calcium channel antagonists have been found efficacious in blocking cerebral vasospasm. A young girl presented with severe headache, aphasia and clinical symptoms suggesting complicated migraine. Her neurologic deficit cleared immediately after the administration of sublingual nifedipine. Nifedipine may prove useful in treatment of complicated migraine.     

语言训练与高压氧治疗对脑卒中后失语症的影响

目的:对脑卒中后失语症康复的治疗方法进行疗效比较.方法:34例脑卒中后失语症患者随机分为2组各17例.联合组采用语言训练与高压氧治疗;训练组则单纯语言训练.治疗前后采用中国康复中心失语检查法对语言功能进行评价和比较.结果:经2-4周治疗后,联合组患者在听理解、复述、命名和阅读方面的评分均高于训练组(P＜0.05).结论:语言训练与高压氧治疗能显著提高脑卒中后失语症患者的疗效.