Connexin-made channels as pharmacological targets

Gap junctions are clusters of intercellular channels that provide morphological support for direct diffusion of ions and low-molecular-weight molecules between adjacent coupled cells. Each gap junction channel is made by docking of two hemichannels or connexons, each formed by assembly of six proteins (connexins). 21 members of the connexin gene family are likely to be expressed in the human genome. These ubiquitous gated channels, allowing rapid intercellular communication and synchronisation of coupled cell activities, play critical roles in many signalling processes, including co-ordinated cardiac and smooth muscle contractions, neuronal excitability, neurotransmitter release, insulin secretion, epithelial electrolyte transport, etc. Mutational alterations in the connexin genes are associated with the occurrence of multiple pathologies, such as peripheral neuropathies, cardiovascular diseases, dermatological diseases, hereditary deafness and cataract. But the neuro- and cardioprotective effects of blocking agents of junctional channels show that closure of these channels may also be beneficial in certain pathological situations. Consequently, modulation of gap junctional intercellular communication is a potential pharmacological target. In contrast to most other membrane channels, no natural toxin or specific inhibitor of junctional channels has been identified yet and most uncoupling agents generally also affect other ionic channels and receptors. Future research, based for example on the recent developments in genetics, may clarify gap junction physiology. This will in turn provide promising perspectives for the development of targeted drugs.     

Mechanosensitive ion channels as drug targets

Mechanically sensitive ion channels (MSCs) are ubiquitous. They exist as two major types: those in specialized receptors that require fibrous proteins to transmit forces to the channel, and those in non-specialized tissues that respond to stress in the lipid bilayer. While few MSCs have been cloned, the existing structures show no sequence or structural homology--an example of convergent evolution. The physiological function of MSCs in many tissues is not known, but they probably arose from the need for cell volume regulation. Recently, a peptide called GsMTx4 was isolated from tarantula venom and is the first specific reagent for mechanosensitive channels. GsMTx4 is a approximately 4 kD peptide with a hydrophobic face opposite a positively charged face. It is active in the D and L forms, and appears non-toxic to mice. GsMTx4 has shown physiological effects on cationic MSCs in heart, smooth muscle, astrocytes, and skeletal muscle. By itself, GsMTx4 can serve as a lead compound or as a potential drug. Its availability opens clinical horizons in the diagnosis and treatment of pathologies including cardiac arrhythmia, muscular dystrophy and glioma.     

大鼠背根神经节酸感受离子通道(ASICs)的药理学特性研究

目的研究大鼠背根神经节(DRG)细胞酸感受离子通道(ASICs)的电生理学和药理学特性。方法应用全细胞膜片钳技术,在急性分散的成年大鼠DRG细胞上记录并分析由不同浓度H+(降低pH值)诱发的ASICs电流。结果在266个大鼠DRG神经元上记录到由H+诱发的3种不同类型的ASICs电流,分别为ASIC1样电流(n=66,24·8%)、ASIC2样电流(n=81,30·4%)和ASIC3样电流(n=119,44·7%)。ASIC1样电流具有快速失活成份,衰减快;ASIC2样电流具有稳态失活成份,衰减十分缓慢;而ASIC3样电流具有快速失活与稳态失活双相成份。三者均不具有整流现象。此3种电流对细胞外H+表现出不同的敏感性,H+诱发电流的pH50分别是:ASIC1-like,pH5·82;ASIC2-like,pH5·18;ASIC3-like,pH6·24。氨氯吡咪以浓度依赖性方式可逆性阻断大鼠DRG神经元的ASICs,对3种ASICs电流的抑制效应差异有显著性。其IC50分别为:ASIC1-like,19·86μmol·L-1;ASIC2-like,42·73μmol·L-1;ASIC3-like,27·91μmol·L-1。结论成年大鼠DRG神经元细胞上表达了3种不同类型的ASICs,且其在表达率、H+敏感性、失敏以及氨氯吡咪敏感性等方面差异均有显著性。     

Sodium ion channels as potential therapeutic targets for cancer metastasis

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Advantages of voltage-gated ion channels as drug targets

Many human diseases result from over- or underactivity in one or more critical physiologic systems. One of the foremost challenges in modern drug discovery is the identification and selection of cellular proteins that can be specifically targeted with therapeutic agents in order to normalize aberrant processes/systems. Suitable drug targets must be validated in the human disease state and ideally, the targeted protein will fulfill similar physiologic and pathologic functions in humans and at least one animal species so that in vivo efficacy and toxicology assays with some predictive clinical relevance may be developed. Nowadays, drug targets must also be amenable to high-throughput screening so that novel molecules, which are capable of modifying cellular protein function, can be identified in large libraries of compounds. Voltage-gated ion channels satisfy many of these requirements and, as a class, are viewed as promising drug targets. Nevertheless, despite their relevance to human disease, voltage-gated ion channels remain considerably underexploited. Therein lie some of the opportunities and advantages associated with voltage-gated ion channels as drug targets.     

NADPH oxidases: novel therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative diseases

Oxidative stress is a key pathologic factor in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases (AD, PD). The failure of free-radical-scavenging antioxidants in clinical trials pinpoints an urgent need to identify and to block major sources of oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. As a major superoxide-producing enzyme complex in activated phagocytes, phagocyte NADPH oxidase (PHOX) is essential for host defense. However, recent preclinical evidence has underscored a pivotal role of overactivated PHOX in chronic neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration. Deficiency in PHOX subunits mitigates neuronal damage induced by diverse insults/stresses relevant to neurodegenerative diseases. More importantly, suppression of PHOX activity correlates with reduced neuronal impairment in models of neurodegenerative diseases. The discovery of PHOX and non-phagocyte NADPH oxidases in astroglia and neurons further reinforces the crucial role of NADPH oxidases in oxidative stress-mediated chronic neurodegeneration. Thus, proper modulation of NADPH oxidase activity might hold therapeutic potential for currently incurable neurodegenerative diseases.     

Potassium channels as drug targets for therapeutic intervention in respiratory diseases

Background: Potassium channels represent a rich source of potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Clinically used potassium channel modulators comprise the sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agents (e.g., nateglinide, glipizide, mitiglinide), antiarrhythmic agents (dexsotalol, nifekalant, dofetilide, ibutilide), antianginal agents (nicorandil) and inotropic agents (levosimendan). Experimental evidence and preclinical models suggest the involvement of a number of potassium channels in respiratory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, supporting the prospects of potassium channel modulators as promising candidates in their therapeutic treatment. Objective: To present a survey on the most recent and relevant patents and patent applications of potassium channel modulators that have been claimed to be valuable for the treatment of chronic respiratory diseases: ATP-dependent K⁺ (K_ATP) channel openers, big-conductance K⁺ (BK) channel openers and intermediate-conductance K⁺ (IK) channel blockers. Methods: The review focuses on the most recent (January 2004 – June 2008) and relevant patents and patent applications in which respiratory diseases are included in the claims. Results/conclusion: K_ATP openers, the pioneer potassium channel modulators investigated for the treatment of respiratory diseases, are nowadays object of lesser attention by the pharmaceutical industry, probably due to lack of clinical success experienced by big Pharma in the face of the large medicinal chemistry efforts directed to identify airway-selective drugs. Emerging attention can instead be perceived in the patent literature for BK_Ca channel openers and their potential use for the same therapeutic indications. Preclinical data support this interest, although clinical proof of concept has not yet been obtained due to the lack of potent and selective BK_Ca drug candidates. This scenario may, however, change in the near future, given the claims of recently-synthesized BK_Ca openers superior to the benchmark NS1619. Until now, the only potassium channel modulating agent under clinical development in an airway indication is the IKCa1 channel blocker senicapoc (ICA-17043) from Icagen. This compound, which was investigated in Phase III trial for sickle cell anemia, is at present in Phase I for asthma.     

TLRs as pharmacological targets for plant-derived compounds in infectious and inflammatory diseases

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are generally involved in host immune responses against microbial invasions. Dysfunction of TLRs is closely related to infectious and inflammatory diseases, for which therapeutic manipulation with TLRs agonists and antagonists represent a promising drug strategy. Medicinal plants were used traditionally for the prevention and treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases. Active compounds derived from these plants were also found with unique features as TLRs agonists and antagonists. These findings bring about new hopes for the application of these naturally existed TLRs modulators. They also provide evidences encouraging further research work of continued characterization for these compounds, which will become promising drug candidates in TLRs-based therapy in the future.     

Transglutaminases as targets for pharmacological inhibition

Transglutaminases (TGases), a family of enzymes that catalyze the formation of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide linkage, play an important physiological role in hemostasis, wound healing, assembly and remodeling of the extracellular matrix, cell signaling and apoptosis. Although many members of this class of enzymes have been known for decades, their role in various physiological and pathological processes is still a subject of substantial research and debate. Convincing evidence exists that TGases are involved in formation of cytotoxic proteinatious aggregates in Alzheimer's, Huntington's and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, it is not clear if elevated levels of TGases play a causative or protective role in several of these processes. Increased or defective TGase activity is a factor in cortical cataract formation, lamellar ichtyosis and fibrosis. TGase creates epitopes for the production of autoantibodies in celiac disease and possibly other autoimmune diseases. Another TGase, Factor XIIIa, is involved in the etiology of vascular diseases. Modulation of TGase activity through its selective inhibition may have therapeutic benefit in a wide variety of diseases. This paper will examine TGases as targets for the development of new therapeutics and review the progress in discovery of selective inhibitors of these enzymes.     

An update on pharmacological approaches to neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are now generally considered as a group of disorders that seriously and progressively impair the functions of the nervous system through selective neuronal vulnerability of specific brain regions. Alzheimer's disease is the most common neurodegenerative disease, followed in incidence by Parkinson's disease; much less common are frontotemporal dementia, Huntington's disease, amyothrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease), progressive supranuclear palsy, spinocerebellar ataxia, Pick's disease and, lastly, prion disease. In this review, the authors intend to survey new drugs in different clinical phases but not in the preclinical or discovery stages nor already in the market, with new molecules aimed at interrupting or at attenuating different pathogenic pathways of neurodegeneration and/or at ameliorating symptoms. Drugs in different pharmacological phases are under study or are ready to be introduced into therapy for Alzheimer's disease, which display anti-beta-amyloid activity or nerve growth factor-like activity or anti-inflammatory properties. Other drugs possess mixed mechanisms of action, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibition and impairment of beta-amyloid formation through inhibition of beta-amyloid precursor protein synthesis and/or modulation of secretase activity. Other therapeutic approaches are based on immunotherapy, control of metal ions interactions with beta-amyloid and ensuing oxidative reactions as well as metabolic or hormonal regulation. The symptomatic therapy of motor behaviour in Parkinson's disease, based on l-DOPA, is registering adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists, monoamine oxidase B inhibitors and ion channel modulators, as well as dopamine uptake inhibitors and glutamate AMPA receptor antagonists. There are also many other drugs involved, including astrocyte-modulating agents, 5-HT(1A) agonists and alpha(2)-adrenergic receptor antagonists, which are targeted at preventing or ameliorating Parkinson's disease-related or l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias. Huntington's disease therapy envisages a Phase III drug, LAX-101, which displays antiapoptotic properties by promoting membrane stabilisation and mitochondrial integrity. Other drugs with antioxidant and antiapoptotic steroid-like and neuroprotective activity are under investigation for the therapy of the less common neurodegenerative diseases.     

Mitochondria as pharmacological targets

In the last decade, mitochondria have provided a vast area of research for the pharmacologist, with a wealth of potential targets for drug action. Correct target identification and subsequent pharmacological manipulation might greatly help in the prevention and/or treatment of a number of the most prevalent diseases of our time including cancer, neurodegenerative disease and myocardial infarction. This is a commentary to accompany the publication of three papers in this issue of the BJP by Kurz et al., Pravdic et al. and Puerta et al. on different aspects of pharmacology involving mitochondria.This article is a commentary on Pravdic et al., pp. 220–232, Puerta et al., pp. 233–245 and Kurz et al. pp. 246–257 of this issue. To view these papers visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00698.xhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00663.x and http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00656.x     

Chemokines as pharmacological targets

Chemokines play a key role in immune processes by controlling leukocyte recruitment in physiological and pathological condition. This review discusses the regulation of the chemokine system, its role in human diseases, and its potential relevance as a new pharmacological target.     

Transient receptor potential ion channels as targets for the discovery of pain therapeutics

A subset of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels exhibits activity that is highly sensitive to temperature changes and is expressed in sensory tissues, such as nociceptors and skin. Some of these thermosensitive TRP channels, such as TRPV1, TRPV4 and TRPA1, are activated or sensitized by molecules generated by inflammation and/or cell damage. TRPV1, also known as the capsaicin receptor, is particularly important in mediating hyperalgesic responses in inflammatory pain states, as demonstrated by research in knockout animals and with small-molecule antagonists. It is anticipated that TRPV1 antagonists, and perhaps antagonists at other thermosensitive TRP channels, will provide new therapeutic options with which to treat clinical pain.