The link between health-related quality of life and clinical symptoms among children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Clinical research on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has begun to integrate measures of health-related quality of life (HRQL) as part of the overall assessment of treatment outcomes. This study examines the association between HRQL and measures of clinical symptoms of ADHD. Data were gathered from 297 children and adolescents in an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of atomoxetine treatment for ADHD. HRQL was assessed with the Child Health Questionnaire 50-item Parent Form. ADHD symptoms were assessed with the ADHD Rating Scale-IV; Parent Version and Clinical Global Impressions-ADHD-Severity. Associations between HRQL and clinical symptoms were assessed with correlations, analyses of variance with post hoc comparisons, and t tests. The Child Health Questionnaire 50-item Parent Form scales assessing psychosocial domains of HRQL were significantly negatively correlated with clinical measures. Improvement in clinical symptoms was associated with corresponding improvement in psychosocial aspects of HRQL. The findings suggest that HRQL instruments can add important information to efficacy measures in clinical trials of ADHD treatment.     

Parent and teacher rating scales in the evaluation of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: contribution to diagnosis and differential diagnosis in clinically referred children

This study evaluated diagnostic utility of parent and teacher ratings in the attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) assessment and differential diagnosis of a clinical sample of children referred for suspected ADHD. Participants were 184 5- to 12-year-old children for whom the following were available: multimethod multi-informant assessment, firm decision regarding presence or absence of ADHD, and parent-completed Child Behavior Checklist and revised 48-item Conners Parent Rating Scale, and teacher-completed Teacher Report Form and 39-item Conners Teacher Rating Scale. Parent ratings of children diagnosed with and without ADHD were generally similar. In contrast, teachers rated students diagnosed with ADHD as displaying higher levels of behavioral difficulties. Discriminant function analyses indicated parent ratings of narrowband measures of ADHD and broadband measures of externalizing symptoms displayed high sensitivity. Teacher ratings outperformed parent ratings when considering sensitivity, specificity, and overall classification accuracy. For clinically recommended cut scores, teacher measures displayed good specificity and positive predictive power. Combining rating scales within informants. did not improve classification accuracy. Combining across parent and teacher measures produced results consistent with teacher ratings. Results support recommendations to include parent and teacher rating scales in ADHD assessment. Scales contributing most to classification accuracy were those designed to assess ADHD. Imperfect performance of rating scales supports recommendations to include other methodologies in diagnosis and differential diagnosis of ADHD.     

A follow-up pilot study of objective measures in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

OBJECTIVES: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood problem requiring stimulant medications in a significant proportion of cases. The aim of this pilot study was to assess the effects of prolonged stimulant medication therapy on a continuous performance test, the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), which measures objectively features of ADHD. METHODS: Eighteen children aged 8 to 16 years who were diagnosed with ADHD, based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edn criteria, were included in the study. Assessment on a continuous performance test (TOVA) was performed initially and the children were administered stimulant medications for at least 12 months. The medications were stopped for 1 week, followed by a repeat TOVA assessment which was compared to the initial TOVA assessment. RESULTS: Follow up TOVA scores showed a significant improvement in mean commission errors (impulsivity) after the stimulant medication therapy. No significant improvement was found in omission errors (inattention), response time and variability. There was a significant positive correlation between commission and omission scores (P value 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this pilot study indicate that there is objective improvement in impulsivity in children with ADHD after a prolonged period of stimulant medication therapy. The study suggests that it would be useful to perform formal studies to investigate this further and also to assess the role of continuous performance test (TOVA) as a method for monitoring the need for ongoing therapy.     

Development of an instrument to measure parents' preferences and goals for the treatment of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder

ObjectivesTo describe the development and validation of an instrument to measure parents’ attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatment preferences and goals.MethodsParents of children 6 to 12 years of age diagnosed with ADHD in the past 18 months were recruited from 8 primary care sites and an ADHD treatment center (autism excluded). A 16-item medication, 15-item behavior therapy preference scale and a 23-item goal scale, were developed after a review of the literature, 90 parent and clinician semistructured interviews, and input from parent advocates and professional experts were administered to parents. Parent cognitive interviews confirmed item readability, clarity, content, and response range. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis and assessed internal consistency and test-retest reliability and construct and concurrent validity.ResultsWe recruited 237 parents (mean child age 8.1 years, 51% black, 59% from primary care, 61% of children medication naive). Factor analyses identified 4 medication preference subscales (treatment acceptability, feasibility, stigma, and adverse effects, Cronbach’s α 0.74–0.87); 3 behavior therapy subscales (treatment acceptability, feasibility, and adverse effects, α 0.76–0.83); and 3 goal subscales (academic achievement, behavioral compliance, and interpersonal relationships, α 0.83–0.86). The most strongly endorsed goal was academic achievement. The scales demonstrated construct validity, concurrent validity (r = 0.3–0.6) compared with the Treatment Acceptability Questionnaire and Impairment Rating Scale and moderate to excellent test–retest reliability (intraclass coefficient = 0.7–0.9).ConclusionsWe developed a valid and reliable instrument for measuring preferences and goals for ADHD treatment, which may help clinicians more easily comply with new national treatment guidelines for ADHD that emphasize shared decision making.     

Misdiagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: ‘Normal behaviour’ and relative maturity

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most frequently diagnosed disorders in children, yet it remains poorly understood. Substantial controversy exists regarding correct diagnosis of ADHD, and areas of subjectivity in diagnosis have been identified. Concerns for appropriate diagnosis are critical in terms of children’s educational outcomes, as well as health concerns associated with the use and potential overuse of stimulant medications. There exists a relative-age effect in which children who are relatively younger than their peers and born closest to the school start age cut-off are more frequently diagnosed and treated for ADHD. Additionally, substantial variation exists in ADHD diagnosis between boys and girls, with boys often presenting with more stereotypical symptoms. Both the relative-age effect and variation in sex diagnosis, as well as the challenges of early preschool diagnosis, emphasize the importance of considering relative maturity in ADHD diagnosis of children. Implications and knowledge translation strategies for practitioners, parents and the education system are presented.     

School board survey of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Prevalence of diagnosis and stimulant medication therapy

BACKGROUND:

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a well described, common problem affecting school-aged children, has an estimated prevalence in Ontario of 7% to 10% of boys and 3% of girls in the age range of four to 11 years. There has been a documented trend to increased use of stimulant medications in the treatment of this disorder in the United States.

OBJECTIVE:

To assess the prevalence of stimulant medication therapy for ADHD in three southern Ontario school boards.

PATIENTS AND METHODS:

A cross-sectional epidemiological study was performed by distributing a survey to all parents of children in kindergarten through grade 6 in six to eight schools selected randomly in each of the three participating school boards. The completed questionnaires were collated, and the comparative data were analyzed using χ².

RESULTS:

A total of 5100 surveys were distributed among the three school boards; 1465 (28.8%) questionnaires were returned completed. Within the three school boards – Hastings County Board of Education, Metropolitan Toronto Separate School Board and the East York Board of Education – the prevalence of ADHD for the age groups surveyed was 4.3%, 3.4% and 6.8%, respectively (average 4.7%), with a peak average of almost 9% by 12 years of age. The percentages of children with diagnosed ADHD who were on stimulant medication were 43%, 3% and 13%, respectively. The differences between the school boards were statistically significant (P<0.05). The male versus female prevalence of a diagnosis of ADHD was 7.1% versus 1.2%, 3.8% versus 3.3% and 10.1% versus 3.6%, respectively, with a combined school board average of 7.1% of males versus 2.9% of females. The average percentage of males versus females who were diagnosed with ADHD and who were on stimulant medication was found to be 27% versus 5%.

CONCLUSIONS:

The prevalence of ADHD was 4.7% in the study population. The overall percentage of children who were on stimulant medication was approximately 1%. Males were not only more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD but also more likely to be treated with stimulant medications if diagnosed. There was an increased prevalence of ADHD with older age, and the different school boards had significant differences in both the percentages of children who were diagnosed with ADHD and the percentages of children who were on medication, suggesting that individual school board policies or other factors may affect both the rate of diagnosis and the likelihood of stimulant drug treatment.     

学龄早期注意缺陷多动障碍儿童事件相关电位和行为问题的相关性

目的采用事件相关电位(ERP)技术和Achenbach儿童行为量表(CBCL)研究学龄早期注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童的认知特征,探讨ERP与儿童行为问题的相关性。方法 22例6~7岁ADHD患儿和年龄匹配的19例正常儿童纳入研究。ERP试验采用持续性操作测试(CPT-AX)任务,对Go和Nogo的N2、P3成分进行波幅和潜伏期的比较分析。CBCL量表由患儿家长填写,分析行为因子与ERP成分的相关性。结果 ADHD组ERP遗漏数明显高于正常对照组(10±8 vs 5±4,P0.05),而两组反应时间和虚报数比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。ADHD组ERP的Go-N2波幅明显低于正常对照组(-8±5μV vs-10±4μV,P0.05)。ADHD组多动、攻击问题检出率均为27%,违纪问题检出率为9%。攻击及违纪因子得分与ERP的Go-N2波幅呈负相关(分别r=-0.43、r=-0.48,均P0.05),多动因子得分与Go-P3潜伏期呈正相关(r=0.50,P0.05)。结论学龄早期ADHD儿童已出现注意执行功能受损趋势,但抑制功能缺陷尚不明显。学龄早期ADHD儿童多动、攻击及违纪问题与ERP相关。     

The hierarchical factor model of ADHD: invariant across age and national groupings?

Objective: To examine the factor structure of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a clinical sample of 1,373 children and adolescents with ADHD and their 1,772 unselected siblings recruited from different countries across a large age range. Hierarchical and correlated factor analytic models were compared separately in the ADHD and sibling samples, across three different instruments and across parent and teacher informants. Specific consideration was given to factorial invariance analyses across different ages and different countries in the ADHD sample. Method: A sample of children and adolescents between 5 and 17 years of age with ADHD and their unselected siblings was assessed. Participants were recruited from seven European countries and Israel. ADHD symptom data came from a clinical interview with parents Parental Account of Childhood Symptoms and questionnaires from parents and teachers (Conners Parent and Teacher). Results: A hierarchical general factor model with two specific factors best represented the structure of ADHD in both the ADHD and unselected sibling groups, and across informants and instruments. The model was robust and invariant with regard to age differences in the ADHD sample. The model was not strongly invariant across different national groups in the ADHD sample, likely reflecting severity differences across the different centers and not any substantial difference in the clinical presentation of ADHD. Conclusions: The results replicate previous studies of a model with a unitary ADHD component and separable specific traits of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. The unique contribution of this study was finding support for this model across a large developmental and multinational/multicultural sample and its invariance across ages.     

A longitudinal twin study on the association between ADHD symptoms and reading

Background: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and reading disability commonly co‐occur because of shared genetic risk factors. However, the stability and change of these genetic influences and the predictive relationships underlying this association longitudinally remain unclear. Methods: ADHD symptoms and reading were assessed as continuous dimensions in a UK general population sample of approximately 7,000 twin pairs. Parent ratings of ADHD symptoms and teacher ratings of reading were obtained at two ages: middle childhood (ages 7–8 years) and early adolescence (ages 11–12 years). Cross‐lagged quantitative genetic analyses were applied. Results: ADHD symptoms and reading significantly predicted each other over time. However, ADHD symptoms were a significantly stronger predictor of reading than vice versa. Inattentive and hyperactive‐impulsive symptoms of ADHD both contributed to the prediction of reading, but inattentiveness was a significantly stronger predictor. Furthermore, ADHD symptoms and reading were highly heritable, and their association was primarily attributable to shared genetic influences. Despite notable genetic innovation for each trait, genetic factors involved in the association of ADHD symptoms and reading over time were highly stable. Conclusions: ADHD symptoms may put children at increased risk for reading problems and vice versa. Moreover, enduring genetic mechanisms appear to be important in the association of ADHD symptoms and reading over time.     

Impact of parent and teacher concordance on diagnosing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its sub-types

Objective  This study examines the extent to which parents and teachers agree on the diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and its subtypes, as per the DSM IV criteria. It assesses whether the extent of agreement between informants improves by making the ADHD criteria more flexible. Methods  Parents and teachers of 119 clinic-referred sample of children (mean age=8.4 years, S.D= 2.48) with disruptive behavioral symptoms completed the Vanderbilt Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnostic Parent and Teacher Rating Scales, respectively. Concordance of parent and teacher reports for the presence or absence of diagnosis of ADHD and type of ADHD was examined by percent agreement and the kappa statistics. Results  Of the 119 children referred for disruptive behavior disorders, 96 (80.6%) met criteria for any type of ADHD according to the parents’ report; and only 68 (57.1%) met criteria according to the teachers’ report. Parent and teacher agreement for the diagnosis of any type of ADHD was only 52% :(k= .11, n.s); and the agreement regarding diagnosis of sub-type was even poorer. Making the criteria more flexible vis-à-vis impairment or number of symptoms did not improve agreement between the informants. Conclusion  Clear guidelines are needed to reconcile the differences between informants in order to promote uniform diagnostic practices among clinicians working with children having ADHD.     

学龄前儿童注意缺陷多动障碍决策树预测模型的前瞻性研究北大核心CSCD

目的探讨注意力时间联合行为量表在学龄前儿童注意缺陷多动障碍(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,ADHD)筛检中的应用价值。方法ADHD组来自2019年2月至2020年3月福建省妇幼保健院确诊的学龄前ADHD儿童200例,对照组来自同期同医院或幼儿园体检的儿童200例,记录注意力时间,并使用中文版SNAP-Ⅳ评定量表父母版(Chinese Version of Swanson Nolan and Pelham,VersionⅣScale-Parent Form)评估症状。以临床诊断为金标准,应用决策树分析法,评估注意力时间联合行为量表筛查ADHD的临床应用价值。结果ADHD组SNAP-Ⅳ条目1、4、7、8、10、11、14、15、16、18、20、21、22的得分高于对照组(P<0.05),注意力时间短于对照组(P<0.05)。将单因素分析2组间差异有统计学意义的变量作为自变量制定决策树模型,该模型预测ADHD的准确率为81%,预测非ADHD的准确率为69%,总体准确率为75%,受试者工作特征曲线下面积为0.816(95%CI:0.774~0.857,P<0.001)。结论基于注意力时间和行为量表建立的学龄前儿童ADHD筛查的决策树模型准确性较高,可用于临床快速进行儿童ADHD初筛,促进开展全人口ADHD筛查与管理。     

Motor function and methylphenidate effect in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Aim: Hyperactivity, impulsivity and poor attention are the core problems of ADHD and central stimulant medication is the preferred treatment. Many children with ADHD also display motor problems. The present study investigated the presence of motor problems in subjects who showed positive response to central stimulants on ADHD symptoms, compared with non‐responders. Method: This is a retrospective study of 73 children diagnosed ADHD, aged 5–17 years, who had been assessed with parts of the ‘Motor Function Neurological Assessment’ (MFNU) and evaluated with regard to effect of central stimulant medication. The sample was divided into two subgroups based on the responses to methylphenidate: Medicine responders and Non medicine responders. Results: Stimulant responders showed significantly more motor problems than the non‐responders on all sub‐tests and on the total problem score of the MFNU. Motor problems were present both in younger (age 5–10 years) and older (11–17 years) stimulant responders. There were no gender differences in motor performance. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that the probability of positive effect of central stimulants on core problems of ADHD is higher when motor problems are present in addition to ADHD symptoms, than when motor problems are absent.     

Effects of stimulant medication on cognitive performance of children with ADHD

The effect that treatment with stimulant medication has on the intellectual performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was examined. Thirty-one children diagnosed with ADHD were given a WISC-III before any treatment was implemented. At least 1 year later, children were retested. At this time, 24 of the children were taking stimulant medications. Children receiving medications had significant increases in IQ scores, but no changes were found for those not taking medications. Changes in IQ scores were moderately related to parents' perceived efficacy of the medication and parent-reported compliance with medication but were not strongly related to changes in parent-reported ADHD symptoms.     

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation for 4 months decreases the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). STUDY DESIGN: Sixty-three 6- to-12-year-old children with ADHD, all receiving effective maintenance therapy with stimulant medication, were assigned randomly, in a double-blind fashion, to receive DHA supplementation (345 mg/d) or placebo for 4 months. Outcome variables included plasma phospholipid fatty acid patterns, scores on laboratory measures of inattention and impulsivity (Test of Variables of Attention, Children's Color Trails test) while not taking stimulant medication, and scores on parental behavioral rating scales (Child Behavior Checklist, Conners' Rating Scale). Differences between groups after 4 months of DHA supplementation or placebo administration were determined by analysis of variance, controlling for age, baseline value of each outcome variable, ethnicity, and ADHD subtype. RESULTS: Plasma phospholipid DHA content of the DHA-supplemented group was 2.6-fold higher at the end of the study than that of the placebo group (4.85 +/- 1.35 vs 1.86 +/- 0.87 mol % of total fatty acids; P <.001). Despite this, there was no statistically significant improvement in any objective or subjective measure of ADHD symptoms. CONCLUSION: A 4-month period of DHA supplementation (345 mg/d) does not decrease symptoms of ADHD.     

Le devenir du trouble déficit de l’attention/hyperactivité chez l’adulte

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood. Although some symptoms of ADHD may diminish this does not mean that functioning is unimpaired in adults. Follow-up studies of children with ADHD show that it persists into adulthood in the majority of cases. Due to genetic factors high rates of ADHD exist among the parents of children with ADHD. More females are identified and become diagnosed in adulthood. There is a greater persistence of inattentive than of hyperactive/impulsive childhood symptoms of ADHD in adulthood. Some experts conceptualise ADHD as primarily a deficit of executive functions impairing planification, time perception and emotional regulation. ADHD often presents as a lifelong condition in adults associated with a range of clinical and psychosocial impairments. Young adults with comorbid antisocial or substance use disorder in adolescence are at significantly increased risk for criminal behaviors. Some predictors of the outcome have been identified such as childhood symptom profile and severity, comorbidity and childhood family adversities.     

Infant brain structures,executive function,and attention deficit/hyperactivity problems at preschool age. A prospective study

Background: Neuroimaging findings have provided evidence for a relation between variations in brain structures and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). However, longitudinal neuroimaging studies are typically confined to children who have already been diagnosed with ADHD. In a population‐based study, we aimed to characterize the prospective association between brain structures measured during infancy and executive function and attention deficit/hyperactivity problems assessed at preschool age. Methods: In the Generation R Study, the corpus callosum length, the gangliothalamic ovoid diameter (encompassing the basal ganglia and thalamus), and the ventricular volume were measured in 784 6‐week‐old children using cranial postnatal ultrasounds. Parents rated executive functioning at 4 years using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function‐Preschool Version in five dimensions: inhibition, shifting, emotional control, working memory, and planning/organizing. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Problems were assessed at ages 3 and 5 years using the Child Behavior Checklist. Results: A smaller corpus callosum length during infancy was associated with greater deficits in executive functioning at 4 years. This was accounted for by higher problem scores on inhibition and emotional control. The corpus callosum length during infancy did not predict Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Problem at 3 and 5 years, when controlling for the confounders. We did not find any relation between gangliothalamic ovoid diameter and executive function or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Problem. Conclusions: Variations in brain structures detectible in infants predicted subtle impairments in inhibition and emotional control. However, in this population‐based study, we could not demonstrate that early structural brain variations precede symptoms of ADHD.     

深圳市小学儿童注意力缺陷多动障碍流行病学调查

目的：调查深圳市小学儿童注意力缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）的患病情况和行为问题。方法：采用Conners行为量表对深圳市小学1~6年级10553名学生的家长、教师进行问卷调查,对经问卷调查为ADHD行为阳性的儿童进一步采用美国精神病学会的精神障碍诊断和统计手册第 4版（DSM-Ⅳ）进行诊断。结果家长问卷和教师问卷均填写完整、合格的为 8193份。纳入研究对象年龄为7~13岁。由家长问卷量表得到ADHD行为发生率为 7.60%,由教师问卷量表得到ADHD行为发生率为5.59%。依据DSM-Ⅳ诊断ADHD 442例,总患病率为 5.39%;7～13岁各年龄组间患病率差异有统计学意义（χ2=21.613,P<0.05）,其中7～9岁各年龄组患病率较高,均在6%以上;男童患病率显著高于女童（6.65% vs 3.12%,P<0.05）。冲动多动问题（79.6%）、学习问题（60.6%）和品行问题（52.0%）是ADHD儿童较突出的行为问题,其中女童学习问题显著高于男童（83.5% vs 54.7%,P<0.01）。结论：深圳市小学儿童ADHD患病率为 5.39%,其中7~9岁儿童患病率较高;男童患病率显著高于女童;冲动多动问题、学习问题和品行问题是ADHD儿童常见的行为问题。     

Medium-term outcomes are comparable with short-term outcomes in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder treated with stimulant medication

OBJECTIVE: To compare the short- and medium-term effects of psychostimulant medication in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHODS: Seventy-three children with ADHD participated in a double-blind crossover study of dextroamphetamine (DEX) and methylphenidate (MPH; results previously reported). At the completion of this study, subjects continued to take the preferred stimulant. Subjects were restudied 6-9 months later. The principal outcome measures were the Revised Conners' Parent and Teacher Rating Scales. RESULTS: Fifty-three families (73%) returned the follow-up surveys. At 6-9 months, mean T scores were still significantly lower than the mean at baseline for all factors of both the CPRS-R and CTRS-R (P < 0.01). There were no statistically significant differences between scores at 6-9 months and scores at the completion of the corresponding medication period in the crossover trial. CONCLUSIONS: After 6-9 months treatment with stimulant medication, ratings remained significantly better than at baseline. This suggests that the early benefits of stimulants are sustained for at least 6 months.     

Stimulant medication use by primary care physicians in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one of the most common behavioral disorders in children in the United States, remains controversial because of concern about stimulant medication use. Extending a previous study of pediatricians, the present study surveyed a random national sample of family practitioners and then directly screened 457 patients of 10 pediatricians and family practitioners in two small midwestern cities. Responses to the national survey indicated that stimulant medication remains the main treatment prescribed by primary care physicians for children with ADHD. In the direct patient screening, the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses was 5.3% (pediatricians) and 4.2% (family practitioners) of all elementary-school-aged children screened. Eighty-eight percent of these children were treated with methylphenidate. Although medication was considered an effective treatment by the parents of 85% of the children given the medication, efficacy was unrelated to the accuracy of diagnosis. When explicit DSM-III-R criteria were used, only 72% of those assigned a diagnosis of ADHD by the physicians would have received that diagnosis based on a structured psychiatric interview with the parents and only 53% received that diagnosis based on teacher report of symptoms, even when the child was not receiving medication. Although the majority of physicians (in both the surveys and the direct screenings) reported using at least some behavioral treatments with their patients, parents reported infrequent use of nonpharmacologic forms of therapy, such as behavior modification. These data thus indicate a relatively modest rate of stimulant medication use for ADHD, but a serious underuse of systematic behavioral treatments in primary care.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Preschool-aged Iranian Children

Objective

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in Iranian preschool children based on evaluations by parents and teachers because a thorough understanding of epidemiologic features of ADHD symptoms in preschool children is important for prevention and management.

Methods

Children between the ages of three and six attending kindergarten participated in this study. For the survey, 37 kindergartens were selected by multistage (stratified cluster random) sampling, consisting of 2213 children with a design effect equal to 1.5. A 19-item observer-rating questionnaire was generated to assess ADHD symptoms in children within the last 6 months. This questionnaire was used by both teachers and parents to assess ADHD behavior in participating children.

Findings

Of 1403 children aged 3–6 years, 362 were classified as having ADHD symptoms according to their parent evaluation [25.8% (23.6–28.1%)] and 239 according to their teachers evaluation [17% (14.1–20.4%)]. Child rank among siblings, mother''s education level, and interest in aggressive television programs were all independent explanatory variables according to parents’ evaluation. Gender, parent education, child rank, single parent and interest in aggressive television programs were all independent explanatory variables according to teachers’ evaluation.

Conclusion

Our findings reveal a large discrepancy in the prevalence of ADHD symptoms in preschool children based on evaluation by parents and teachers. Thus, it seems that the ADHD screening should be performed in multiple settings in order to identify children who need further investigations.