Upexpression of Beclin-1-Dependent Autophagy Protects Against Beta-amyloid-Induced Cell Injury in PC12 Cells

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related and progressive neurodegenerative disease. Beta-amyloid (Aβ) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. Autophagy is a self-degradative process and its related protein Beclin-1 is involved in the initiation of autophagy. However, the role of Beclin-1 in the pathogenesis of AD is rarely reported. In this study, we examined cell viability and medium levels of neuron-specific enolase (NSE) in PC12 cells incubated with gradient concentrations of Aβ_1-42 (0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 μM) for 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h, drew the index changes curves, and investigated the correlation between them. The result showed that cell viability was negatively correlated with NSE levels. Based on this study, Beclin-1 expression was quantitatively detected in Aβ_1-42-treated PC12 cells and the dynamic changes curve of Beclin-1 was drawn from 3 to 72 h. Beclin-1 expression was positively correlated with cell viability. Furthermore, both autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and autophagy activator rapamycin were used to investigate the effect of autophagy on Aβ_1-42-induced cell injury. Aβ_1-42-induced Beclin-1 expression was further upregulated by rapamycin but was downregulated by 3-MA. Moreover, cell viability was increased by rapamycin but was decreased by 3-MA, and NSE was decreased by rapamycin but was increased by 3-MA, suggesting that activation of Beclin-1-dependent autophagy before the damage occurred can prevent neuronal cell death, while inhibition of Beclin-1-dependent autophagy can hastened cell death. These findings indicate that increasing Beclin-1-dependent autophagy may have a preventive effect before the AD occurred.     

Knocking Out DJ-1 Attenuates Astrocytes Neuroprotection Against 6-Hydroxydopamine Toxicity

Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cell type in the brain. Impairment in astrocyte functions can critically influence neuronal survival and leads to neurodegeneration. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by motor dysfunction that results from progressive neuronal loss. Astrocytic dysfunction was demonstrated in human samples and in experimental models of PD. Mutations in DJ-1 (PARK7) leading to loss of functional protein cause familial PD and enhance sensitivity to oxidative insults. Recently, an increase in DJ-1’s expression was found in reactive astrocytes in various neurodegenerative disorders. Here we show that lack of DJ-1 attenuates astrocytes’ ability to support neuronal cells, thereby leading to accelerated neuronal damage. DJ-1 knockout mice demonstrated increased vulnerability in vivo to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) hemiparkinsonian PD model. Astrocytes isolated from DJ-1 knockout mice showed an inferior ability to protect human neuroblastoma cells against 6-OHDA insult both by co-culture and through their conditioned media, as compared to wild-type astrocytes. DJ-1 knockout astrocytes showed blunted ability to increase the expression of cellular protective mechanisms against oxidative stress mediated via Nrf-2 and HO-1 in response to exposure to 6-OHDA. These experiments demonstrated that lack of DJ-1 impairs astrocyte-mediated neuroprotection.     

6羟多巴胺诱导PC12细胞凋亡的研究

为探讨帕金森病(PD)黑质多巴胺神经元的死亡机制。本文用DNA末端标记法,借助荧光显微镜观察6羟多巴胺对儿茶酚胺细胞株PC12细胞凋亡的影响。结果发现:低浓度范围内的6羟多巴胺可诱导PC12细胞凋亡,而单胺摄取抑制剂脱甲丙咪嗪则可抑制其诱导的细胞凋亡。本文提示凋亡可能参与了PD早期病变过程。     

Ac-cel, a Novel Antioxidant, Protects Against Hydrogen Peroxide-induced Injury in PC12 Cells via Attenuation of Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Oxidative stress has been implicated in pathophysiology of many neurodegenerative diseases (ND) and increased oxidative stress is closely associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. As a result, looking for potent antioxidants, especially those targeting mitochondria, has become an attractive strategy in ND therapy. In this study, we explored protective effects and potential mechanism of Ac-cel, a novel compound, against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced injury in PC12 cells. Pretreatment of PC12 cells with Ac-cel prior to 24 h of H₂O₂ exposure markedly attenuated cytotoxicity induced by H₂O₂ as evidenced by morphological changes and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Ac-cel also exhibited potent antiapoptotic effect demonstrated by results of annexin V and PI staining. The above beneficial effects of Ac-cel were accompanied by improved mitochondrial function, reduced caspase-3 cleavage as well as upregulated ratio of Bcl-2/Bax protein expression. Moreover, Ac-cel pretreatment markedly reversed intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation following 30 min of H₂O₂ exposure in PC12 cells. Further, subcellular investigation indicated that Ac-cel significantly reduced production of mitochondrial ROS in isolated rat cortical mitochondria. Taken together, the present study, for the first time, reports that Ac-cel pretreatment inhibits H₂O₂-stimulated early accumulation of intracellular ROS possibly via reducing mitochondrial ROS production directly and leads to subsequent preservation of mitochondrial function. These results indicate that Ac-cel is a potential drug candidate for treatment of oxidative stress-associated ND.     

Stable Expression of a Novel Fusion Peptide of Thioredoxin-1 and ABAD-Inhibiting Peptide Protects PC12 Cells from Intracellular Amyloid-Beta

Amyloid-β peptide-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD) inhibiting peptide, as a specific inhibitor between ABAD and amyloid-β (Aβ), has been demonstrated to effectively inhibit Aβ peptide cytotoxicity. However, a major drawback is its short half-life, which results in the need for multiple applications and high synthesis costs. To overcome this, we established a lentiviral expression system that allowed the stable expression of the small ABAD-inhibiting peptide by fusion with cytosolic thioredoxin-1 (TRX). The fusion peptide, TA aptamer, was observed within PC12 cytoplasm and maintained both Aβ-binding ability and antioxygenic property similar to TRX. Our data showed that overexpression of both TRX and TA aptamer could protect PC12 cells from intracellular Aβ cytotoxicity. The present study suggests that TRX, as a cytosolic protein and a fusion motif, could not only assist ABAD-inhibiting peptide expression, cytoplasmic localization, but rebalance the disturbed “redox equilibrium” caused by intracellular Aβ in PC12 cells.     

PACAP Protects Against Ethanol and Nicotine Toxicity in SH-SY5Y Cells: Implications for Drinking-Smoking Co-morbidity

The detrimental effects of heavy drinking and smoking are multiplied when the two are combined. Treatment modalities for each and especially for the combination are very limited. Although in low concentration, alcohol and nicotine, each may have beneficial effects including neuroprotection, their combination, instead of providing additive protection, may actually lead to toxicity in cell cultures. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is an endogenous 38 amino-acid peptide with demonstrated protection against neuronal injury, trauma as well as various endogenous and exogenous toxic agents. The aim of this study was to investigate whether PACAP may also protect against toxicity induced by high alcohol, high nicotine, or the combination of low alcohol and nicotine concentrations, and if so, whether this effect was mediated via PAC1 receptor. We used the neuroblastoma-derived SH-SY5Y cells and applied various colorimetric assays for determination of cell viability or toxicity. Results indicate that PACAP blocks toxicity induced by high alcohol and high nicotine as well as their combination at low concentrations. The effects of PACAP in turn were blocked by the PACAP antagonist (PACAP 6-38), indicating involvement of the PACAP receptor PAC1 and possibly vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptors in PACAP’s protection. Moreover, no combined toxicity of low alcohol and low nicotine could be detected in calcium-free medium. These findings suggest possible beneficial effects of PACAP in preventing alcohol and nicotine toxicity and that calcium contributes to the damage induced by combination of low alcohol and nicotine in SH-SY5Y cells.     

胰岛素可抵抗MPP^＋诱导的PC12细胞的凋亡

目的观察胰岛素在MPP+诱导PC12细胞凋亡中的干预作用.方法应用MTT法研究细胞活性的改变,应用HOECHST33258染色结合荧光显微镜技术及流式细胞技术检测不同药物对PC12细胞的凋亡诱导作用,应用半定量逆转录聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)测定胰岛素受体(insulin receptor,IR)mRNA的改变.结果①MPP+诱导PC12细胞凋亡,胰岛素可以抵抗此凋亡作用;②以上两种处理,均未见到胰岛素受体mRNA的改变,推测胰岛素受体的自身磷酸化有改变.结论胰岛素可以抵抗MPP+诱导的PC12细胞的凋亡.     

酸敏感离子通道在PC12细胞中的表达

目的：检测酸敏感离子通道（ASICs）在PC12细胞中的表达情况。方法：采用RT-PCR、Westernblot以及单细胞膜片钳记录方法检测ASICs在培养的PC12细胞中的表达情况。结果：PC12细胞中有ASICs蛋白的表达,且ASICs的6个亚基：ASIC1a,ASIC1b,ASIC2a,ASIC2b,ASIC3,ASIC4均有表达,给予酸诱导能产生电流。结论：PC12细胞上存在ASICs电流,且能被ASICs阻断剂阿米洛利所阻断,这为研究ASICs在神经退行性疾病中的作用提供了较为理想的细胞模型。     

6-羟基多巴胺诱导PC12细胞帕金森模型中GRP78表达的研究

目的 探讨神经毒素6-羟基多巴胺（6-OHDA）诱导PC12细胞的帕金森（PD）模型中GRP78的表达.方法 在建立6-OHDA诱导PC12细胞帕金森模型的基础上,MTT法测细胞存活率和Hoechst33342染色检测细胞凋亡.分别提取6-OHDA处理组和对照组细胞总蛋白,应用荧光差异凝胶电泳（Differential Gel Electrophoresis,DIGE）技术获得蛋白点的差异表达信息,运用MALDI-TOF质谱鉴定出差异蛋白质.结果 实验组细胞存活率为60%±4.8%,与对照组比较显著下降（P＜0.05）.荧光染色可见细胞核呈固缩状或碎裂状的典型的凋亡形态学改变.DIGE分析发现6-OHDA组表达明显增高的一个蛋白质点,经质谱分析鉴定确认为GRP78.结论 6-OHDA能够诱导PC12细胞凋亡,凋亡过程中GRP78表达增高,提示GRP78增高可能与PD的发病机制有关.     

The Antiepileptic Drug Levetiracetam Protects Against Quinolinic Acid-Induced Toxicity in the Rat Striatum

Levetiracetam (LVT) is a relatively novel antiepileptic drug (AED) known to act through binding with the synaptic vesicular 2A (SV2A) protein, thus modulating the presynaptic neurotransmitter release. The tryptophan metabolite quinolinic acid (QUIN) acts as an excitotoxin when its brain concentrations reach toxic levels under pathological conditions. Since increased neuronal excitability induced by QUIN recruits degenerative events in the brain, and novel AED is also expected to exert neuroprotective effects in their pharmacological profiles, in this work the effect of LVT (54 mg/kg, i.p., administered for seven consecutive days) was tested as a pretreatment against the toxicity evoked by the bilateral intrastriatal injection of QUIN (60 nmol/μl) to adult rats. QUIN increased the striatal levels of peroxidized lipids and carbonylated proteins as indexes of oxidative damage 24 h after its infusion. In addition, in synaptosomal fractions isolated from QUIN-lesioned rats 24 h after the toxin infusion, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release was decreased, whereas glutamate (Glu) release was increased. QUIN also decreased motor activity and augmented the rate of cell damage at 7 days post-lesion. All these alterations were significantly prevented by pretreatment of rats with LVT. The results of this study show a neuroprotective role and antioxidant action of LVT against the brain damage induced by excitotoxic events.     

One-Electron Reduction of 6-Hydroxydopamine Quinone is Essential in 6-Hydroxydopamine Neurotoxicity

6-Hydroxydamine has widely been used as neurotoxin in preclinical studies related on the neurodegenerative process of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease based on its ability to be neurotoxic as a consequence of free radical formation during its auto-oxidation to topaminequinone. We report that 50-µM 6-hydroxydopamine is not neurotoxic in RCSN-3 cells derived from substantia nigra incubated during 24 h contrasting with a significant sixfold increase in cell death (16 ± 2 %; P < 0.001) was observed in RCSN-3NQ7 cells expressing a siRNA against DT-diaphorase that silence the enzyme expression. To observe a significant cell death in RCSN-3 cells induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (24 ± 1 %; P < 0.01), we have to increase the concentration to 250 μm while a 45 ± 2 % cell death (P < 0.001) was observed at this concentration in RCSN-3NQ7 cells. The cell death induced by 6-hydroxydopamine in RCSN-3NQ7 cells was accompanied with a (i) significant increase in oxygen consumption (P < 0.01), (ii) depletion of reduced glutathione and (iii) a significant decrease in ATP level (P < 0.05) in comparison with RCSN-3 cells. In conclusion, our results suggest that one-electron reduction of 6-hydroxydopamine quinone seems to be the main reaction responsible for 6-hydroxydopamine neurotoxic effects in dopaminergic neurons and DT-diaphorase seems to play an important neuroprotective role by preventing one-electron reduction of topaminequinone.     

Differentiation of PC12 Cells Results in Enhanced VIP Expression and Prolonged Rhythmic Expression of Clock Genes

To examine for circadian rhythmicity, the messenger RNA (mRNA) amount of the clock genes Per1 and Per2 was measured in undifferentiated and nerve-growth-factor-differentiated PC12 cells harvested every fourth hour. Serum shock was needed to induce circadian oscillations, which in undifferentiated PC12 cultures lasted only one 24-h period, while in differentiated cultures, the rhythms continued for at least 3 days. Thus, neuronal differentiation provided PC12 cells the ability to maintain rhythmicity for an extended period. Both vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and its receptor VPAC2 are expressed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), and in agreement with VIP signaling being crucial for maintenance of rhythmicity, we found both VIP and VPAC2 mRNA increased after differentiation of PC12 cells. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts time- and concentration-dependent effects on Per gene expression in the SCN. We added 1 nM and 1 microM PACAP to oscillating PC12 cells at times corresponding to midday and early and late night to evaluate whether the effects were similar as in SCN. Induction of Per1 mRNA was found at all three times, which differs from results in SCN. Thus, PC12 cells seem more useful for studying mechanisms behind acquirement of rhythmicity of cell cultures than for resetting of circadian rhythm.     

还原型谷胱甘肽拮抗6-OHDA对骨髓基质细胞的毒性作用

目的:探讨6-羟基多巴胺(6-OHDA)对骨髓基质细胞(BMSCs)的毒性作用及还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)对其的拮抗作用。方法:取体重60～90g的SD大鼠股骨、胫骨及肱骨BMSCs,体外培养至传3代。采用MTT法检测不同剂量6-OHDA对BMSCs的毒性作用,相同条件下同时检测GSH的细胞保护作用。结果:MTT显示GSH可使传3代BMSCs活性升高(P<0.05);6-OHDA可使传3代BMSCs的活性下降(P<0.05);GSH干预能提高6-OHDA作用后的传3代BMSCs的活性(P<0.05)。结论:一定剂量的6-OHDA对BMSCs具有毒性作用,GSH能够明显拮抗6-OHDA对BMSCs的毒性作用。     

胰岛素受体磷酸化增加对MPP＋诱导的PC12细胞凋亡的影响

目的:研究胰岛素抗MPP 诱导PC12细胞凋亡中胰岛素受体(IR)的变化。方法:应用半定量逆转录聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)测定胰岛素抗MPP 诱导PC12细胞凋亡过程中IRmRNA的基因表达,免疫沉淀Western印迹分析技术测定相同条件下IR的蛋白表达,应用IR自身磷酸化的特异阻断剂HNMPA-AM3,通过MTT法观察PC12细胞生存率的改变、瞬转IR质粒后再次观察细胞生存率的改变及进一步通过免疫沉淀Western印迹分析技术检测IR蛋白质磷酸化水平。结果:IR磷酸化程度的变化与细胞生存率的变化有关,HNMPA-AM3可阻断胰岛素对MPP 诱导的PC12细胞的抗凋亡作用,IR可增强胰岛素的抗凋亡作用。结论:IR磷酸化增加可抵抗MPP 诱导的PC12细胞的凋亡。     

Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester (CAPE) Protects PC12 Cells from Cisplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity by Activating the NGF-Signaling Pathway

Cisplatin is a highly effective chemotherapeutic drug that is toxic to the peripheral nervous system. Findings suggest that axons are early targets of the neurotoxicity of cisplatin. Although many compounds have been reported as neuroprotective, there is no effective treatment against the neurotoxicity of cisplatin. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a propolis component with neuroprotective potential mainly attributed to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. We have recently demonstrated the neurotrophic potential of CAPE in a cellular model of neurotoxicity related to Parkinson’s disease. Now, we have assessed the neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of CAPE against cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells. CAPE (10 μM) attenuated the inhibition of neuritogenesis and the downregulation of markers of neuroplasticity (GAP-43, synapsin I, synaptophysin, and 200-kD neurofilament) induced by cisplatin (5 μM). This concentration of cisplatin does not affect cell viability, and it was used in order to assess the early neurotoxic events triggered by cisplatin. When a lethal dose of cisplatin was used (IC50?=?32 μM), CAPE (10 μM) increased cell viability. The neurotrophic effect of CAPE is not dependent on NGF nor is it additive to the effect of NGF, but it might involve the activation of the NGF-high-affinity receptors (trkA). The involvement of other neurotrophin receptors such as trkB and trkC is unlikely. This is the first study to demonstrate the protective potential of CAPE against the neurotoxicity of cisplatin and to suggest the involvement of trkA receptors in the neuroprotective mechanism of CAPE. Based on these findings, the beneficial effect of CAPE on cisplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy should be further investigated.     

Lateromedial Gradient of the Susceptibility of Midbrain Dopaminergic Neurons to Neonatal 6-Hydroxydopamine Toxicity

The topography-dependent vulnerability of midbrain dopaminergic neurons to neonatal intracranial exposure to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was investigated at adult age by the quantitative analysis of cell counts of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunopositive neurons. In all cases of intracisternal 6-OHDA treatment, A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) were much more vulnerable to death than more medially located A10 dopaminergic neurons. Moreover, within each cell group, there were also lateromedial topographic gradients. In the A9 neuronal group, cells located in the pars lateralis of the SN and the lateral part of the pars compacta of the SN were more susceptible to 6-OHDA toxicity than those located more medially. In the A10 neuronal group, cells located in the medial part of the ventral tegmental area were more resistant to toxicity than those located more laterally, and dopaminergic cells in the midline midbrain areas (interfascicular nucleus and rostral linear nucleus of raphe) were completely spared from 6-OHDA toxicity. These findings revealed that 6-OHDA is not equally toxic to all midbrain dopaminergic neurons in neonates and that the lateromedial vulnerability pattern shows similarities to those reported in Parkinson's disease.     

Asymmetrical Dimethylarginine Antagonizes Glutamate-Induced Apoptosis in PC12 Cells

Overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) plays an important role in glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is an endogenous nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor. The aim of this study is to explore whether ADMA antagonizes the excitotoxicity of glutamate to neuronal cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this work, we investigated the effects of ADMA on glutamate-induced toxicity in neuronal cells by studying PC12 cells, a clonal rat pheochromocytoma cell line. We show that ADMA obviously protects PC12 cells against glutamate-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis. We also found that ADMA treatment results in prevention of glutamate-induced mitochondrial membrane potential loss and caspase-3 activation. Moreover, ADMA prevents glutamate-caused down-regulation of bcl-2 protein expression. These results indicate that ADMA protects against glutamate-induced apoptosis and excitotoxicity and the underlying mechanism may be involved in preservation of mitochondrial function by up-regulating the expression of bcl-2. Our study suggests a promising future of ADMA-based therapies for neuropathologies associated with an excess of NO.