Self-care of young adolescents with type 1 diabetes

The purpose of this study was to describe the universal and health deviation self-care of adolescents with Type 1 diabetes and the associations of basic conditioning factors with universal and health deviation self-care. Subjects for this study were 152 adolescents aged between 11 and 15 years with a diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes. Data were collected in the home setting of each adolescent and his or her family. The mean universal self-care scores ranged from 66.62% to 90%. The overall mean for this sample was 75.37, indicating that these adolescents took care of their self-care needs 75% of the time. Health deviation self-care was a mean of 27.26, indicating more positive self-care behaviors and treatment adherence. Health deviation and universal self-care were significantly and positively related (r = .36, p < .001). Ethnicity and adolescent sex were statistically significant in predicting universal self-care. Adolescent age was statistically significant in predicting health deviation self-care. Health deviation self-care decreases with age, suggesting that early adolescence or late school age is an appropriate time for interventions to strengthen self-care behaviors. Furthermore, the interrelationship of the two types of self-care supports the potential for a synergistic effect of intervention.     

The prevalence of silent ischemia in Turkish patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of death in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, the diagnosis of CVD is delayed due to concealment of antecedent symptoms by factors such as autonomic neuropathy. In this study, we aimed to investigate the frequency of silent ischemia by using exercise electrocardiogram (ECG). The present study included 500 Turkish patients with type 2 diabetes (male/female: 222/278), who showed no evidence of CAD and angina pectoris or no sign(s) of ischemic changes in resting ECGs. All patients underwent treadmill exercise test according to Bruce protocol, and 62 cases (12.4%) exhibited abnormal changes. These patients identified by exercise ECG consisted of 28 males (28/222, [12.6%]) and 34 females (34/278, [12.2%]) and were then examined by coronary angiography. CAD was diagnosed in 53 individuals by coronary angiography. The abnormalities of exercise test are associated with the age of the patients or the duration of diabetes (p < 0.05). There is no significant difference in the severity of coronary disease or in the prevalence of silent ischemia between male and female patients. However, among the patients identified by exercise ECG females have higher body mass index than males, suggesting that obesity may represent the risk factor of CAD in women with type 2 diabetes.     

Acute hyperglycaemia induces an inflammatory response in young patients with type 1 diabetes

Background. Patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are at a substantially increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Stress-induced hyperglycaemia in turn is shown to worsen the prognosis of patients suffering from an acute myocardial infarction. However, the mechanisms behind these findings are incompletely known.

Aim. To investigate whether markers of chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress respond to acute hyperglycaemia in patients with T1D.

Methods. The plasma glucose concentration was rapidly raised from 5 to 15 mmol/L in 35 males (22 men with T1D and 13 age-matched non-diabetic volunteers) and maintained for 2 h. All participants were young non-smokers without any signs of diabetic or other complications. Markers of chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress were analysed in serum/plasma samples drawn at base-line and after 120 min of hyperglycaemia.

Results. Compared to normoglycaemia, acute hyperglycaemia increased the interleukin (IL)-6 concentrations by 39% in patients with T1D (P<0.01) and 26% in healthy volunteers (P<0.05). During hyperglycaemia the superoxide dismutase concentration was increased by 17% in the healthy volunteers (P<0.01) and 5% in the patients with type 1 diabetes (P=NS). The increase in tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α was larger in patients with type 1 diabetes than in non-diabetic volunteers (35% versus ?10%, P<0.05).

Conclusions. This study shows that acute hyperglycaemia induces an inflammatory response in patients with type 1 diabetes.     

社区2型糖尿病患者抑郁情况及其影响因素分析

目的 了解2型糖尿病(T2 DM)患者中抑郁的检出率及影响因素.方法 在北京市4个社区抽取T2 DM患者619例.应用一般情况调查表、抑郁自评量表(SDS)、社会支持量表(SSRS)调查T2 DM患者中抑郁状态的检出率及影响因素.比较T2 DM合并抑郁患者与无抑郁患者的社会支持水平,运用多因素Logistic回归分析T2 DM患者发生抑郁的影响因素,计算OR值.结果 本组619例T2 DM患者中抑郁检出率为44.1%;T2 DM合并抑郁患者的社会支持水平低于无抑郁患者;多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示,并发症、年龄、社会支持是T2 DM患者合并抑郁的影响因素,OR值分别为1.892、0.672、0.558.结论 T2 DM患者中抑郁检出率较高,合并抑郁患者的社会支持水平低于无抑郁患者,有无并发症是T2 DM患者并发抑郁的危险因素,患者年龄大、社会支持水平高是其保护因素.     

老年2型糖尿病患者骨质疏松患病率特征

目的：探讨老年2型糖尿病患者骨质疏松患病率的年龄及性别差异.方法：①选择1995-02/2005-02在徐州医学院附属医院老年医学科住院及门诊就诊的老年2型糖尿病患者286例为老年糖尿病组,男168例,女118例;年龄60～79岁.选择同期本院中年2型糖尿病患者88例为中年糖尿病组,男56例,女32例,年龄50～59岁.均对实验目的知情同意.60～69岁129例,男73例,女56例;70～79岁157例,男95例,女62例.选择本院健康体检老年人159人为老年对照组,男89人,女70人,年龄60～79岁.60～69岁78例,男42例,女36例;70～79岁81例,男47例,女34例.②测量患者的身高、体质量,计算体质量指数=体质量（kg）/身高（m）^2.根据骨质疏松诊断标准骨密度比骨峰值减少2.5 s以上）判断纳入对象骨质疏松患病情况.③计量和计数数据差异性比较采用t检验和X2检验.结果：老年2型糖尿病患者286例和中年2型糖尿病组88例及健康老年人159例均进入结果分析.①老年糖尿病组女性和老年糖尿病组70～79岁男性骨质疏松患病率明显高于中年糖尿病组（X^2=4.68,4.19,7.11,P＜0.05～0.01）;但明显低于同龄对照组（X^2=4.02,3.85,4.14,P＜0.05）.②老年糖尿病组对象体质量指数明显高于老年对照组（t=2.660～4.20,P＜0.01）.结论：老年2型糖尿病女性和70～79岁男性患者骨质疏松患病率并不比同龄健康老年人高,甚至等于或低于健康老年人,但高于中年2型糖尿病患者,这种现象的发生可能与老年糖尿病患者体质量控制较好有关.     

老年2型糖尿病患者骨质疏松患病率特征

目的:探讨老年2型糖尿病患者骨质疏松患病率的年龄及性别差异。方法:①选择1995-02/2005-02在徐州医学院附属医院老年医学科住院及门诊就诊的老年2型糖尿病患者286例为老年糖尿病组,男168例,女118例;年龄60～79岁。选择同期本院中年2型糖尿病患者88例为中年糖尿病组,男56例,女32例,年龄50～59岁。均对实验目的知情同意。60～69岁129例,男73例,女56例;70～79岁157例,男95例,女62例。选择本院健康体检老年人159人为老年对照组,男89人,女70人,年龄60～79岁。60～69岁78例,男42例,女36例;70～79岁81例,男47例,女34例。②测量患者的身高、体质量,计算体质量指数=体质量(kg)/身高(m)2。根据骨质疏松诊断标准骨密度比骨峰值减少2.5s以上)判断纳入对象骨质疏松患病情况。③计量和计数数据差异性比较采用t检验和χ2检验。结果:老年2型糖尿病患者286例和中年2型糖尿病组88例及健康老年人159例均进入结果分析。①老年糖尿病组女性和老年糖尿病组70～79岁男性骨质疏松患病率明显高于中年糖尿病组(χ2=4.68,4.19,7.11,P<0.05～0.01);但明显低于同龄对照组(χ2=4.02,3.85,4.14,P<0.05)。②老年糖尿病组对象体质量指数明显高于老年对照组(t=2.660～4.20,P<0.01)。结论:老年2型糖尿病女性和70～79岁男性患者骨质疏松患病率并不比同龄健康老年人高,甚至等于或低于健康老年人,但高于中年2型糖尿病患者,这种现象的发生可能与老年糖尿病患者体质量控制较好有关。     

Predictors of treatment adherence in young children with type 1 diabetes

AIM: This paper reports a study to investigate whether diabetes-specific, demographic and psychosocial variables predict adherence in young children with type 1 diabetes. BACKGROUND: Paediatric diabetes rates are increasing worldwide; however, young children are neglected in treatment adherence research, despite the importance of adherence for health. Greater understanding of adherence in this group could enhance nurses' ability to provide care tailored to families' needs. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was carried out between 2001 and 2003 with 65 children aged 2-8 years and their mothers in Britain. Mothers were interviewed about children's diabetes care, nutritional analyses were conducted and mothers completed assessments of diabetes knowledge, parenting stress, family functioning and child psychological adjustment. Demographic and medical information was collected from patient records. FINDINGS: Consistent with older populations, blood glucose monitoring and dietary regimens showed greater adherence variability than injection frequency and injection time consistency. Better maternal diabetes knowledge correlated with less injection time variability, more frequent blood glucose monitoring, lower percentage energy intake from extrinsic sugars, lower glycosylated haemoglobin levels and fewer relationship difficulties. Longer diabetes duration, greater injection time variability and higher percentage energy intake from extrinsic sugars predicted less frequent blood glucose monitoring. More relationship difficulties and less frequent blood glucose monitoring predicted higher percentage energy intake from extrinsic sugars. CONCLUSIONS: Nurses can facilitate treatment adherence through provision of educational, practical and socio-emotional support. Nursing interventions should target blood glucose monitoring and dietary regimens in particular, and nurses should be sensitive to the various caretaking challenges presented to parents by different components of the diabetes regimen.     

Parasympathetic versus sympathetic control of the cardiovascular system in young patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Autonomic neuropathy and cardiovascular dysregulation are common complications of the diabetes mellitus (DM). The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that cardiovascular regulation is abnormal in young patients with type 1 DM. Patients with type 1 DM (17, 10 females, 7 males) aged 12.9-31.5 years (mean+/-SEM: 22.4+/-1.0 years) were investigated. The mean duration of DM was 12.4+/-1.2 years. The control group consisted of 17 healthy probands matched for sex and age. The length of R-R intervals was measured using telemetric system (VariaCardio TF4; Sima Media) where ECG signal (sampling frequency 1000 Hz) from thoracic belt was transferred into PC for further analysis. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was monitored beat-to-beat using volume-clamp method by Finapres 2300 (Ohmeda). Spectral power in HF band of HRV (HRV-HF) was taken as an index of parasympathetic control and spectral power in LF band of systolic BPV (BPV-LF) as an index of sympathetic control. In young patients with type 1 DM significant reduction of spectral power in HF band of the heart rate variability was found, whereas no significant difference between DM group and control group was observed in spectral power in LF band of blood pressure variability. In conclusion, we found impaired parasympathetic control of heart rate in young patients with type 1 DM. No differences in blood vessels sympathetic control were detected using spectral analysis of BPV. We suggest that abnormalities in cardiac parasympathetic regulation precede impairment of blood vessels sympathetic control in young diabetics.     

Redefining relationships and identity in young adults with type 1 diabetes

Title.  Redefining relationships and identity in young adults with type 1 diabetes.
Aim.  This paper is a report of a study exploring the meaning of interactions with and supports of self-management from parents and other significant others for young adults with type 1 diabetes.
Background.  Adolescence and young adulthood is known to be a critical period for people living with diabetes in terms of diabetes control, which is why support from significant others is of utmost importance during the transition to adult life.
Method.  A grounded theory approach was used. Interviews with 13 young adults with type 1 diabetes and 13 parents 2 years after transfer to adult diabetes care were conducted during 2006–2007. Internet communication between young people on a diabetes website was also included in the constant comparative analysis.
Findings.  Transition to adult life for young adults with diabetes was characterized by a relational and reflexive process leading to ongoing redefinition of relationships and identity. Parents were perceived as the most reliable supporters, compared to partners, siblings and other significant others. Chat friends can also become important through emotional, social and diabetes-related support in internet communication. The young adults showed growing awareness of their own capacities, shortcomings and emotional reactions, reflections which contribute to a redefinition of self.
Conclusion.  Further research is needed to explore how contemporary interactions contribute to development of the self. By focusing on supporting relationships, nurses are in a strategic position to develop knowledge and modify clinical programmes that promote diabetes management and care by taking supporting interactions into account from a contemporary point of view.     

Total homocysteine in patients with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to study the presence of moderate hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease, its modifying vitamin factors (folates, vitamins B12 and B6), and lipid risk factors in juvenile type 1 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 91 patients with type 1 diabetes (46 girls and 45 boys) were studied, with ages ranging from 11 to 18 years, a duration of diabetes from 1 to 15 years, and in pubertal development (stages III, IV, V). In all patients, cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL and LDL cholesterol, lipoprotein(a), folates, cobalamin, vitamin B6, and total homocysteine were determined by specific assays. Microalbuminuria, defined as a ratio of albumin/creatinine >3 mg/mmol creatinine, was analyzed in the first morning specimen. RESULTS: Plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) concentrations were not different in the 91 diabetic children (median [range]) (11-15 years, 6.1 micromol/l [3.2-9.6]; 16-18 years, 7.3 micromol/l [3.9-12]) compared with the control group (11-15 years, 6.6 micromol/l [4.4-10.8]; 16-18 years, 8.1 micromol/l [4.6-11.3]). No significant differences were found in tHcy values in relation to the metabolic control of the disease as assessed by glycohemoglobin values, the duration of disease, alterations in fundus oculi, or presence of lymphocytic thyroiditis. A positive correlation was found between tHcy and plasma creatinine in type 1 diabetic patients that might be related with the increase in muscle mass. There was a negative correlation between tHcy and serum folate (P<0.001) and vitamin B12 (P<0.05), but not with vitamin B6 levels. No significant correlations were found between tHcy and the lipid parameters. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperhomocysteinemia was not detected in adolescents with type 1 diabetes.     

Maternal management behaviors for young children with type 1 diabetes

PURPOSE: To describe the process that mothers raising young (0-4 years old) children who are newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes move through to attain the necessary skills to care for their children. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A mixed methods design was used, including qualitative interviews with 28 mothers of young children with type 1 diabetes. Principles of naturalistic inquiry were used to guide the data collection process, management, and analysis of the qualitative findings. RESULTS: The process paralleled two of three management approaches and associated behaviors previously described by Gallo and Knafl. Strict adherence behaviors included rigidly following the team recommendations and avoiding strange environments outside the home. Flexible adherence behaviors strove to bring spontaneity back into family life. Selective adherence was not used by this population. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Nurses working with these mothers can provide information and support to help them transition from using strict adherence to the more user-friendly flexible adherence, while avoiding the pitfalls of the possibly harmful third approach of selective adherence. Nurses need to remember to praise the parents' efforts at managing their children's diabetes, for our acknowledgment of their work is empowering and affirming.