Clinical recommendations for repair of isolated orbital floor fractures: an evidence-based analysis

PURPOSE: To assess the quality of information in the literature and suggest guidelines for repair of isolated orbital floor fractures. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Orbital floor fractures are a common result of orbital injury. Enophthalmos, diplopia resulting from extraocular muscle dysfunction, and infraorbital nerve hypesthesia may occur. The indications and timing for fracture repair are still controversial. LITERATURE REVIEWED: A MEDLINE literature review was performed using PubMed. Articles published from 1983 to the present were retrieved using the key words, "orbital floor fracture, orbital trap-door fracture, and orbital blow-out fracture." Suggested indications and timing for repair of isolated orbital floor fractures were extracted from selected articles. Each recommendation was rated according to its importance in the care process and strength of evidence supporting the given recommendation. RESULTS: No prospective randomized clinical trials on the treatment of orbital floor fractures have been performed. Despite this, most recommendations were rated as most important to patient care (A) and had strong support for treatment (level I). CONCLUSIONS: The timing and treatment indications for orbital floor fractures are evolving. Nonresolving oculocardiac reflex, the "white-eyed" blowout fracture, and early enophthalmos or hypoglobus are indications for immediate surgical repair. Surgery within 2 weeks is recommended in cases of symptomatic diplopia with positive forced ductions and evidence of orbital soft tissue entrapment on computed tomography examination or large orbital floor fractures that may cause latent enophthalmos or hypo-ophthalmos.     

Clinical recommendations for repair of orbital facial fractures

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Orbital facial fractures are a common result of facial trauma. Enophthalmos, diplopia resulting from extraocular muscle dysfunction, and infraorbital nerve hypesthesia may occur. The indications and timing for fracture repair are debated. RECENT FINDINGS: The timing and treatment indications for orbital facial fractures are evolving. For orbital floor fractures, nonresolving oculocardiac reflex, the "white-eyed" blowout fracture, and early enophthalmos or hypoglobus are indications for immediate surgical repair. Surgery within 2 weeks is recommended in cases of symptomatic diplopia with positive forced ductions and evidence of orbital soft tissue entrapment on computed tomography examination or large orbital floor fractures, which may cause latent enophthalmos or hypo-ophthalmos. For midfacial, lateral, supraorbital, medial wall, and nasoethmoidal fractures, repair within 2 weeks is indicated to avoid difficult repair from immediate posttraumatic wound healing. SUMMARY: Orbital facial fracture management is germane to ophthalmologists, plastic surgeons, otolaryngologists, and others who treat patients.     

Update on orbital trauma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To evaluate the recent developments in the evaluation and treatment of orbital trauma from April 2003 to March 2004. The scope of orbital trauma included a MEDLINE search under the keywords of zygoma and orbital fracture, and traumatic optic neuropathy. RECENT FINDINGS: Preoperative volume assessment with computed tomography of orbital fractures can help surgical planning of volume replacement. Ultrasonography can visualize anterior orbital fractures, including rim and zygoma trauma. Orbital trauma has a high incidence of concurrent ocular trauma. Fractures in the presence of the oculocardiac reflex, persistence nausea/vomiting, or entrapped soft tissue require urgent repair. Endoscopic-assisted repair of orbital fractures offers an alternative approach to orbital fracture repair. SUMMARY: Advances in ultrasonography and computed tomography allow better visualization of orbital fractures for better preoperative evaluation and intraoperative repair. Progress in endoscopic techniques offers alternatives in orbital fracture repair. New materials allow for options in orbital reconstruction. Unfortunately, few advances in the management of traumatic optic neuropathy were found in this review.     

Orbital Adherence with Titanium Mesh Floor Implants: A Review of 10 Cases

Abstract

Background: Multiple materials have been used in the repair of orbital floor fractures. We report 10 cases of complications relating to the use of titanium mesh orbital floor implants.

Method: A retrospective review of 10 cases in 2 centres in New Zealand. Patients presented with diplopia or eyelid retraction following repair of an orbital floor fracture with titanium mesh implants.

Results: Ten patients (7 male, 3 female) aged between 15–78 years old (mean 39 years) presented with significant restriction of eye movement and/or eyelid retraction following repair of an orbital floor fracture with a titanium mesh implant. Seven patients presented with restriction of eye movement alone. Three patients had lower lid retraction in addition to restriction of eye movement. One patient presented with epiphora following erosion of the implant through the nasolacrimal duct. Seven patients underwent surgical removal of the implant with all patients showing improvement of extraocular movement post-operatively. Three cases did not undergo implant removal with one case showing mild improvement over 9 months, and 2 cases showing no improvement. The mean interval between the initial surgery and removal of the implant was 7.1 months.

Discussion: In our series, 7 cases required explantation of the original titanium implant. In these cases a vigorous fibrotic reaction had taken place between the orbital contents and the titanium mesh implant. We postulate that the fibrous reaction between the implant and the orbital contents caused the eye movement restriction and the lid retraction. Implant materials used in orbital floor fracture surgery should be inert with a flat profile rather than a mesh to prevent adhesions through the mesh that may cause cicatricial eye movement restriction and eyelid retraction.     

Aspergillus Infection of Supramid Orbital Implant and Hyperostosis of Orbital Bone: Report of a Unique Case

Purpose: The authors report the clinical findings in a patient who developed proptosis fourteen years after an orbital floor fracture repair with a Supramid orbital implant due to hyperostosis of the orbital floor and lateral orbital wall bone secondary to aspergillus infection.

Methods: Clinical, radiological, microbiological and histological findings and the management of this patient are presented.

Results: A 25-year-old male was referred with proptosis and lower lid retraction, fourteen years after a traumatic orbital floor fracture repair with a Supramid implant. Orbital exploration revealed a thick irregular sheet of bone covering the orbital floor implant and extending laterally along the lateral orbital wall. Aspergillus fumigatus was grown from the Supramid implant as well as from the bone and histology showed chronic inflammatory process with reactive bone formation. Patient was treated with a course of oral Voriconazole and post-operatively the patient is asymptomatic with reduction in proptosis.

Conclusion: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of Apergillus fumigatus infection secondary to a Supramid orbital floor implant, associated with hyperostosis of orbital bone.     

Incarceration of the Inferior Oblique Muscle Branch of the Oculomotor Nerve in Two Cases of Orbital Floor Trapdoor Fracture

Background Incarceration of the inferior oblique muscle (IO) branch of the oculomotor nerve may occur in cases of orbital floor trapdoor fracture.Cases Two orbital floor trapdoor fracture cases, with lesions located just outside of the inferior rectus muscle but without its incarceration, were examined pre- and postoperatively for visual acuity, intraocular details, the nine diagnostic ocular positions of gaze, binocular single vision field with the Hess chart, and by computed tomography (CT). One case was also examined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; T1-weighted images). A forced duction test was conducted intraoperatively.Observations Each case presented good visual acuity and neither globe showed any injury. Motility disturbance of the IO was shown in each case by binocular single vision field testing and the Hess chart. The possibility of the incarceration of the IO branch of the oculomotor nerve, which runs from the incarcerated lesion to the superior belly of the IO, in an orbital floor trapdoor fracture was shown on CT and MRI. Intraoperative forced duction testing revealed a restriction due to the incarceration of the connective tissue septa.Conclusions As inferred from the CT and MRI analyses conducted in this study, IO palsy may be one of the causes of ocular motility disturbance of the IO in an orbital floor trapdoor fracture, in addition to the ocular motility disturbance due to the connective tissue septa. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2005;49:246–252 © Japanese Ophthalmological Society 2005     

成人水平斜视手术中局部麻醉监护指标变化的研究

目的：观察局部麻醉监护情况下成人水平斜视手术中心电图、呼吸、血氧饱和度、血压的变化情况。

方法：临床确诊为水平斜视的17例成人患者19眼36条眼外肌纳入研究。其中男10例,女7例。年龄18～71(平均32.65)岁; 外斜视14例(男8例,女6例),内斜视3例(男2例,女1例)。所有患者均进行最佳矫正视力(BCVA)、裂隙灯显微镜、间接检眼镜、角膜荧光及眼科同视机检查。术中由专业麻醉医师采用监护仪对手术采取全程密切监控。对比分析术前与局部麻醉监护术中的心电图、呼吸频率、血氧饱和度及血压的变化情况,对比内外直肌、不同性别及不同年龄组的区别。

结果：局部麻醉监护下17例成人水平斜视手术中牵拉眼外肌共36条,眼心反射发生率86.1%; 牵拉内、外直肌,眼心反射阳性率分别为100%,72.2%。眼心反射在男女性别间无统计学差异。18～30岁眼心反射阳性率明显高于31～71岁。术中呼吸频率的增高与眼心反射同步,与牵拉内外直肌、性别及不同年龄组无关。血氧饱和度无明显变化。血压在手术刚开始时出现一过性增高,首次牵拉眼内外直肌时出现一过性降低,在性别和年龄上无明显差异。

结论：在局部麻醉监护下成人水平斜视手术中,眼心反射发生率高,牵拉内直肌时100%发生; 呼吸增快与眼心反射同步; 手术即将开始时血压增高、牵拉眼内外直肌时血压降低。     

儿童眼眶爆裂性骨折的临床治疗

目的：探讨儿童眼眶爆裂性骨折的临床表现及治疗方法。

方法：选取2008-03/2010-10儿童眼眶爆裂性骨折患儿12例12眼,分析其临床表现,并早期进行手术治疗。

结果：患者12例大部分为摔伤后出现眼下壁骨折、下直肌嵌顿,表现为复视,CT表现为“泪滴征”。12例均早期实施手术。手术后12例复视均明显改善。其中6例于术后1wk上转逐渐恢复到位; 4例于术后3mo内恢复; 2例6mo内仍有上转不到位,其牵拉试验为阳性。

结论：儿童爆裂性骨折多表现为下壁的裂隙性骨折,表现为眼球运动受限和复视,眼球内陷少见; 外伤及手术都容易造成肌肉损伤,早期手术治疗对于肌肉功能的恢复有重要意义。     

自体阔筋膜修复治疗单纯眼眶下壁爆裂性骨折

目的评价自体阔筋膜修复治疗单纯眼眶下壁爆裂性骨折的效果。方法将21例（21只眼）单纯性眼眶下壁爆裂性骨折患者根据骨折范围分为2组，骨折范围〉2cm^2者9例（9只眼），≤2cm^2者12例（12只眼），行自体阔筋膜修复术，术后随访3～6个月。观察两组术后复视，眼球突出度情况及视力。结果复视完全消失15例（71．43％），眶下壁骨折〉2cm^2者眼球内陷矫正2例（22．2％），≤2cm^2眼球内陷矫正10例（83．3％），视力提高5例（23．8％）。结论应用自体阔筋膜经下睑缘人路治疗单纯眶下壁爆裂性骨折，能有效地恢复眼球运动。修复眶腔，对于损伤≤2cm^2病例效果较好。     

A Novel Bioresorbable Implant for Repair of Orbital Floor Fractures

Purpose: To describe clinical, radiologic, and safety outcomes of orbital floor fracture repair using a novel bioresorbable polycaprolactone (PCL) mesh implant (Osteomesh?, Osteopore International, Singapore).

Methods: This is a prospective interventional case series of orbital floor fractures repaired using a novel PCL mesh implant. Clinical evaluation was conducted at presentation and postoperatively at 1, 4, 12, 24 and 48 weeks. Computed tomography (CT) of the orbits was performed 1 year postoperatively.

Results: A total of 20 patients were recruited. Mean follow up was 50.4?±?31.88 weeks. The majority of the patients were male (60%) and of Chinese ethnicity (75%), and the mean age was 39.35 (range 13–69) years. The most common mechanism of injury was assault. The average fracture size was 21.9?mm (range 12–32?mm) in the anteroposterior meridian and 18.65?mm (range 6–27?mm) in the horizontal meridian. Fifty percent of the patients were classified as having a large orbital defect (horizontal width ≥20?mm). The binocular single vision (BSV) score improved from 72.1% preoperatively to 90.8% postoperatively (P?Conclusion: This bioresorbable implant is a promising material for the repair of both small and large orbital floor fractures, giving good functional and aesthetic outcomes.     

小儿眶底骨折临床分析

目的 :探讨小儿眶底骨折的临床特点及治疗。方法 :回顾性研究 6 7例年龄小于 18岁的单纯眶底骨折患者 ,采用手术治疗眶底骨折 ,植入物为硅胶或羟基磷灰石。结果 :体育运动 (37 3% )和暴力伤 (2 3 9% )是造成小儿眶底骨折的主要原因 ;79 1%的病人有眼球运动疼痛和 /或恶心呕吐 ,复视 (79 7% ) ,严重的眼球运动障碍 (6 1 2 % )和眼球内陷 (2 5 4% )。小儿眶底骨折主要是陷阱型 (trapdoortype)骨折 (5 6 8% ) ,可伴有下直肌嵌顿。早期手术 (<1个月 )比晚期手术 (>1个月 )可以更有效地改善患者症状 (P <0 0 5 )。结论 :早期手术是治疗小儿眶底骨折的有效方法     

Malignant Transformation of Optic Nerve Melanocytoma into Melanoma Associated with Ocular Ischemic Syndrome and Oculocardiac Reflex: Case Report and Review of the Literature

Purpose: To describe the clinical and pathological features of malignant transformation of an optic nerve melanocytoma over 25 years, associated with spontaneous extensive tumor necrosis, neovascular glaucoma, ocular ischemic syndrome, and oculocardiac reflex. Procedures: A 60-year-old Caucasian female presented with acute severe left ocular pain and glaucoma with an intraocular pressure of 80?mmHg and bradycardia (28–40 beats/min). Results: Histopathological examination of the enucleated eye showed features of malignant transformation of a spontaneously necrotic optic nerve melanocytoma associated with ocular ischemic syndrome and neovascular glaucoma. Conclusions: Yearly follow-up and awareness of possible but well-documented malignant transformation, even over several decades, is recommended. This case presents malignant transformation of an optic nerve melanocytoma associated with the common complications described in the literature over the years. Of particular interest was the development of oculocardiac reflex in this patient.     

The oculocardiac reflex as a surgical aid in identifying a slipped or ''lost'' extraocular muscle.

The oculocardiac reflex during strabismus surgery has generally been regarded as a hazard capable of causing death. Six cases are presented which show a beneficial use of the oculocardiac reflex. Isolation of a previously slipped or 'lost' extraocular muscle can be difficult. In this series identification of the tissue as muscle was substantiated by observing a positive oculocardiac reflex when traction was placed on the suspected tissue. Each of the 6 dislodged extraocular muscles was the medial rectus muscle. Three of the muscles had been resected and 3 either recessed or tenotomised. In one patient, despite 6 previous strabismus operations, including 2 strabotomies on a muscle that slipped, and in another patient, who had a lapse of 6 years since the last strabotomy, when the slipped muscle was isolated, the oculocardiac reflex could still be elicited. To avoid abolishing the oculocardiac reflex during surgery the anaesthetist should be instructed to avoid the use of an intravenous parasympatholytic agent, such as atropine, at the time of induction and during the operation.     

Clinical analysis of internal orbital fractures in children

In order to describe the demographics, etiologic and clinical factors, and outcomes of orbital fractures in children, we have reviewed a case series of 17 patients under 18 years of age with internal orbital fractures (i.e., without involvement of the orbital rim) presenting to the Ghil hospital between March 2000 and June 2001. For 15 of the patients, we performed orbital wall reconstruction with Medpor barrier sheet implantation (thickness 1mm) through transconjunctival approach under endoscopic guidance, while maintaining mere observation on the other 2 patients. There were 14 male and 3 female patients. The most common cause of fractures was accident (7 cases). Inferior wall involvement was most commonly seen, and the trapdoor type fracture was the most common. Thirteen patients had extraocular muscle restriction, 9 had nausea/vomiting and 5 had bradycardia. Diplopia of 9 patients disappeared after 43 +/- 23 days. Nausea/vomiting and bradycardia disappeared rapidly after surgical intervention in all cases. These results suggest that trapdoor fractures with soft tissue entrapment are the most common in pediatric orbital wall fractures, and that most of them are associated with nausea/vomiting. We suggest that early diagnosis, and prompt surgical intervention are required for those patients with oculocardiac reflex.     

Electrocardiographic changes during subconjunctival injections

Electrocardiographic changes were investigated in 53 patients duringsubconjunctival drug injections. Decrease in heart-rate of more than10% or arrhythmia was observed in 25 (47.2%) of the patients, whowere considered to have a positive oculocardiac reflex. In the control group of 35 patients, only 3 (8.6%) were found to have a significant decrease in heart rate during blood sampling from antecubital vein (p = 0.000). Young age was a significant risk factor for oculocardiac reflex during injections (p = 0.01). Patient gender, verbal pain score, satiety, experience of periocular injections, injected drug type were not found to be risk factors. All patients with oculocardiac reflex were asymptomatic; however, it is still wise to have emergency supplies readyfor any circulatory derangement during subconjunctival injections.     

下睑缘入路治疗眶内下壁联合骨折

目的评价采用下睑缘切口治疗眶内、下壁联合骨折的效果。设计回顾性病例系列。研究对象18例眶内、下壁联合骨折的患者。方法所有患者均经下睑缘切口行眶壁骨折整复术,术中充分游离、保护泪囊,于眶内、下壁浅面植入复合羟基磷灰石人造骨片,术前、术后行双眶水平及冠状位CT、头面部三维cT检查并进行比较。主要指标临床症状及并发症。结果术后随访3～18个月,所有患者下睑皮肤瘢痕不明显,术后均未出现人造骨片排异或移位,无一例患者术后出现溢泪,复视、眼球内陷等症状均得到改善。结论单独采用下睑缘切口治疗眶内、下壁联合骨折是可行的,但仅适于眶下壁联合眶内壁下份骨折,尤其是伴发眶内、下壁隅角骨折的复合型骨折。     

应用AO三维预成型钛网治疗眼眶骨折的临床研究

目的：：评价三维预成型钛网在单纯性眶壁骨折修复中的精确性和可行性。方法：本研究共包括47例单纯性眶壁骨折患者,骨折部位如下：内下壁联合骨折26例(55%),单纯眶内壁骨折12例(26%),单纯眶下壁骨折9例(19%)。对于眶下壁骨折,采用标准的经下睑结膜入路;而对于眶内壁骨折和内下壁联合骨折,则采用经泪阜、经下睑结膜联合入路,同时暂时切断下斜肌将两切口沟通。所有患者均充分暴露骨折边缘并还纳疝出的眶内组织后,根据术前CT测量的骨折缺损范围,选择对应型号的AO三维预成型钛网并进行适当的修剪和弯制后植入眶内,使用两颗钛钉将钛网固定于眶下缘。通过术后复查眼眶三维CT来评价植入钛网的精确性,通过对患者术前和术后的临床资料的对比来评价预成型钛网临床应用的可行性。结果：术后CT表明,所有患者的眼眶骨折在植入三维预成型钛网后均得到比较精确的解剖修复。所有患者在术中、术后均未出现严重的并发症,40例(87%)患者眼球内陷得以矫正,25例(86%)患者复视消失。结论：AO三维预成型钛网在解剖上可比较精确地修复眶壁骨折;在临床上,可以显著改善眼球内陷和复视。     

Enfisema orbitario pediátrico secundario a disparo con pistola de aire comprimido: a propósito de un caso

Case reportWe report the case of a 2 year-old child with orbital emphysema secondary to a compressed-air gun shot in the malar region, with no evidence of orbital wall fracture. Conservative treatment was applied, and no complications were observed.DiscussionOrbital emphysema in the absence of an orbital wall fracture is a rare situation. Orbital emphysema is usually seen in facial trauma associated with damage to the adjacent paranasal sinuses or facial bones. To our knowledge there have been very few reports of orbital emphysema caused by a compressed-air injury.     

应用MIMICS制作个体化预成型钛网修复眶下壁骨折的临床研究

目的:探索应用Mimics软件快速制作个体化预成型钛网修复眶下壁骨折的临床效果和临床可行性。方法:本研究共包括10例单侧单纯性眶下壁骨折患者。均采用经下睑结膜切口修复眶下壁骨折。首先应用MIMICS软件重建患者眼眶的三维模型,然后将该3D模型在眶下壁上方平行切割,形成内含眶下壁缺损形态的2D模型,将该模型1∶1打印输出到纸张上,于术中消毒后作为模板。根据该模板塑型和修剪钛网,使个体化成型的钛网与眼眶缺损形态完全吻合,然后植入眶内。所有患者均于术后3d内复查眼眶三维CT,观察植入钛网的位置和形态,以此来评估该方法的临床可行性。结果:CT复查表明,全部患者的预成型钛网均达到精确重建眶下壁骨折缺损的目的。9例患者复视和眼球内陷得以治愈,1例患者内陷治愈残留下转复视。结论:应用Mimics软件快速制作个体化预成型钛网可以精确修复眶下壁骨折,该技术可以应用于临床。     

不同麻醉下视网膜脱离手术中的眼心反射观察

目的:观察不同麻醉方法下视网膜脱离外路手术中的眼心反射。方法:选取我科2008-06/2010-03住院患者109例109眼,随机分为对照组和治疗组,分别采用球后阻滞麻醉与静脉复合麻醉进行视网膜脱离外路手术,观察术中血压、心率、眼心反射、血氧饱和度等情况。结果:与球后阻滞麻醉比较,静脉复合麻醉下眼心反射发生率低,收缩压、舒张压及平均血氧饱和度变化较小,经统计学处理,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论:静脉复合麻醉下行视网膜脱离外路手术相对安全,并发症少,效果满意。