Stress-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in the corpus luteum

Current evidence suggests that stress-induced apoptosis is mediated through the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade. We hypothesize that stress-related signaling events documented in other cell lines may also occur in the corpus luteum. To test this, cultured bovine luteal cells were exposed to UV irradiation and harvested at different intervals (0, 30, 120, 240 and 360 min) for analysis of protein or apoptotic cell death. In response to UV treatment cellular levels of phosphorylated p38MAPK and jun-n-terminal kinase (JNK) were increased within 30 min and remained elevated over controls for the duration of the experiment. In contrast, the levels of the phosphorylated forms of p42MAPK and p44MAPK were dramatically reduced. The changes in MAPK signaling were similar to those observed in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha, a cytokine implicated in luteal regression. The UV-induced changes in MAPK phosphorylation were associated with an increase in caspase 3 activity and apoptotic cell death. Taken together, these data demonstrate that stress-induced signaling events in the corpus luteum are similar to those observed in unrelated cell types. Thus, stress-related signaling events may play a role in luteal regression.     

Cortical cholinergic signaling controls the detection of cues

The cortical cholinergic input system has been described as a neuromodulator system that influences broadly defined behavioral and brain states. The discovery of phasic, trial-based increases in extracellular choline (transients), resulting from the hydrolysis of newly released acetylcholine (ACh), in the cortex of animals reporting the presence of cues suggests that ACh may have a more specialized role in cognitive processes. Here we expressed channelrhodopsin or halorhodopsin in basal forebrain cholinergic neurons of mice with optic fibers directed into this region and prefrontal cortex. Cholinergic transients, evoked in accordance with photostimulation parameters determined in vivo, were generated in mice performing a task necessitating the reporting of cue and noncue events. Generating cholinergic transients in conjunction with cues enhanced cue detection rates. Moreover, generating transients in noncued trials, where cholinergic transients normally are not observed, increased the number of invalid claims for cues. Enhancing hits and generating false alarms both scaled with stimulation intensity. Suppression of endogenous cholinergic activity during cued trials reduced hit rates. Cholinergic transients may be essential for synchronizing cortical neuronal output driven by salient cues and executing cue-guided responses.Virtually all cortical regions and layers receive inputs from cholinergic neurons originating in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, the substantia innominata, and the diagonal band of the basal forebrain (BF). Reflecting the seemingly diffuse organization of this projection system, functional conceptualizations traditionally have described acetylcholine (ACh) as a neuromodulator that influences broadly defined behavioral and cognitive processes such as wakefulness, arousal, and gating of input processing (1, 2). However, anatomical studies have revealed a topographic organization of BF cholinergic cell bodies with highly segregated cortical projection patterns (3–7). Such an anatomical organization favors hypotheses describing the cholinergic mediation of discrete cognitive-behavioral processes. Studies assessing the behavioral effects of cholinergic lesions, recording from or stimulating BF neurons in behaving animals have supported such hypotheses, proposing that cholinergic activity enhances sensory coding and mediates the ability of reward-predicting stimuli to control behavior (8–17).In separate experiments using two different tasks, we reported the presence of phasic cholinergic release events (transients) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of rodents trained to report the presence of cues (18, 19). These studies used choline-sensitive microelectrodes to measure changes in extracellular choline concentrations that reflect the hydrolysis of newly released ACh by endogenous acetylcholinesterase (SI Results and Discussion). Importantly, such cholinergic transients were not observed in trials in which cues were missed and in which the absence of a cue was correctly reported and rewarded. Cholinergic transients have thus been hypothesized to mediate the detection of cues, specifically defined as the cognitive process that generates a behavioral response by which subjects report the presence of a cue (20).Here we used optogenetic methods to test the causal role of cortical cholinergic transients in cue detection (as defined above). We used a task that consisted of cued and noncued trials and rewarded correct responses for both trial types (hits and correct rejections). Incorrect responses (misses and false alarms, respectively) were not rewarded. We hypothesized that hit rates would be enhanced by generating transients in conjunction with cues, and that hit rates will be reduced by silencing cue-associated endogenous cholinergic signaling. We further reasoned that if cholinergic transients are a mediator of the cue detection response, generating such transients on noncued trials could force invalid detections (false alarms).Phasic cholinergic activity was generated or silenced, in separate sessions, by photoactivation directed toward the cholinergic cell bodies of the BF or the cholinergic terminals locally in the right mPFC. The decision to target right mPFC was based on findings indicating that performance of the task used here enhances cholinergic function in the right, but not left, mPFC in mice (21) and activates right prefrontal regions in humans (19, 22). The present results support the hypothesis that the ability of cues to guide behavior is mediated by phasic cholinergic signaling. Particularly strong support for this hypothesis was obtained by the demonstration that, in the absence of cues, and thus of endogenous transients, photostimulation of either cholinergic soma in the BF or cholinergic terminals in the mPFC increased the number of invalid reports of cues (or false alarms).     

Multiple roles for cholinergic signaling in pancreatic diseases

Cholinergic nerves are widely distributed throughout the human body and participate in various physiological activities, including sensory, motor, and visceral activities, through cholinergic signaling. Cholinergic signaling plays an important role in pancreatic exocrine secretion. A large number of studies have found that cholinergic signaling overstimulates pancreatic acinar cells through muscarinic receptors, participates in the onset of pancreatic diseases such as acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis, and can also inhibit the progression of pancreatic cancer. However, cholinergic signaling plays a role in reducing pain and inflammation through nicotinic receptors, but enhances the proliferation and invasion of pancreatic tumor cells. This review focuses on the progression of cholinergic signaling and pancreatic diseases in recent years and reveals the role of cholinergic signaling in pancreatic diseases.     

Effect of ethanol on thrombopoiesis

Chronic ethanol abuse causes thrombocytopenia but the underlying mechanism is unknown. To determine the target cells involved, we examined the effects of the drug in vitro on both megakaryocyte progenitor cells (CFU-Meg) and isolated, maturing megakaryocytes. In the presence of ethanol concentrations of 0.05-2.0 g/dl, megakaryocyte colony formation by mouse CFU-Meg in soft agar was normal. At 5 g/dl ethanol, colony formation was reduced by 50%; with 7 g/dl ethanol, no megakaryocyte colonies were formed. Acetaldehyde did not inhibit colony formation unless very high concentrations (100 mg/dl) were employed. Isolated guinea-pig megakaryocytes can maintain their viability and incorporate 3H-leucine into TCA-precipitable protein for at least 24 h. Incubation of these maturing megakaryocytes with ethanol did not affect their viability, but at concentrations greater than 120 mg/dl ethanol progressively inhibited protein synthesis. At 0.5 g/dl ethanol, protein synthesis was decreased by 23% while viability was still 93% of control. Like CFU-Meg, maturing megakaryocytes were resistant to the toxic effects of acetaldehyde. To determine the in vivo correlates of these results, guinea-pigs were fed 5 g/dl ethanol in a liquid diet. By 11 d, when blood ethanol levels were 20-150 mg/dl, platelet counts in the animals were reduced by 17-29%, while the number of marrow megakaryocytes was unaltered. These data indicate that the site of action of ethanol in suppressing thrombopoiesis is at the level of the maturing megakaryocyte.     

Hedgehog signaling promotes prostate xenograft tumor growth

During fetal prostate development, Sonic hedgehog (Shh) expression by the urogenital sinus epithelium activates Gli-1 expression in the adjacent mesenchyme and promotes outgrowth of the nascent ducts. Shh signaling is down-regulated at the conclusion of prostate ductal development. However, a survey of adult human prostate tissues reveals substantial levels of Shh signaling in normal, hyperplasic, and malignant prostate tissue. In cancer specimens, the Shh expression is localized to the tumor epithelium, whereas Gli-1 expression is localized to the tumor stroma. Tight correlation between the levels of Shh and Gli-1 expression suggests active signaling between the tissue layers. To determine whether Shh-Gli-1 signaling could be functionally important for tumor growth and progression, we performed experiments with the LNCaP xenograft tumor model and demonstrated that: 1). Shh expressed by LNCaP tumor cells activates Gli-1 expression in the tumor stroma, 2). genetically engineered Shh overexpression in LNCaP cells leads to increased tumor stromal Gli-1 expression, and 3). Shh overexpression dramatically accelerates tumor growth. These data suggest that hedgehog signaling from prostate cancer cells to the stroma can elicit the expression of paracrine signals, which promote tumor growth.     

Death-defying apoptotic caspases in thrombopoiesis

In this issue of Blood, White et al provide compelling evidence that the intrinsic apoptotic caspase cascade, while required for megakaryocyte and platelet death under pathophysiologic conditions, is dispensable for normal platelet formation and function.     

Pathologic thrombopoiesis of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is frequently complicated by thrombocytosis correlated with disease activity. The exact pathogenetic mechanism(s) that cause increased platelet counts in RA are still unknown. Recent investigations indicate that proinflammatory pleiotropic cytokines of RA also have megakaryocytopoietic/thrombopoietic properties. Moreover, several lineage-dominant hematopoietic cytokines can also act as acute phase responders and contribute to the inflammation. This review focuses on the current literature and our experience regarding the dual relationships of the pathologic thrombopoiesis of RA. Growth factors contributing to it, namely interleukin (IL)-6, IL-11, stem cell factor, leukemia inhibitory factor, granulocyte colony stimulating factor, thrombopoietin (TPO), and the regulation of megakaryocytopoiesis during the inflammatory cascade are reviewed. Some data indicate that thrombopoietin could contribute to the reactive thrombocytosis of RA. In the non-lineage-specific gp130 cytokine family, IL-6 appears to predominate for the induction of megakaryopoiesis. However, other cytokines and growth factors may also contribute to the pathologic megakaryocytopoiesis of RA. Those pleiotropic mediators seem to act in concert to regulate this enigmatic process. Clarification of the pathobiologic basis of thrombopoiesis in RA may improve understanding of the disease pathogenesis and management of the inflammatory thrombocytosis.     

Nerve growth factor promotes cholinergic development in brain striatal cultures.

We have examined the effect of the trophic protein, nerve growth factor (NGF), on organotypic cultures of fetal rat striatum. Treatment of cultures with NGF for 10-11 days resulted in a 5- to 12-fold increase in the specific activity of the cholinergic enzyme choline acetyltransferase (CAT; EC 2.3.1.6). in a dose-dependent fashion. This effect was not elicited by insulin, ferritin, or cytochrome c, proteins similar in structure or physicochemical properties to NGF. The effect of NGF on CAT activity was specifically blocked by anti-NGF antiserum, whereas treatment with the antiserum alone did not have a significant effect on the enzyme. Immunocytochemical studies of the treated cultures, using a monoclonal antibody directed against CAT, revealed positively stained neurons exhibiting dendritic and axonal processes. NGF did not have an effect on total protein content of the striatal cultures, suggesting a highly specific effect. Moreover, levels of substance P, a peptide localized to other, noncholinergic neurons, were not altered by NGF. Substance P remained unchanged after treatment with NGF for 12 days, whereas CAT activity increased 12-fold in sister cultures. Although the mechanisms of action of NGF on striatal cholinergic interneurons remain to be determined, the marked, specific response of CAT suggests that this well-defined trophic protein may play a critical role in normal brain development.     

Fas信号通路通过诱导EMT促进胃癌细胞的侵袭转移

目的探讨Fas信号通路促进胃癌细胞侵袭转移的可能相关机制。方法以低浓度FasL处理胃癌细胞株AGS,免疫印迹及ELISA检测上皮间质转化(epithelial-mesenehymal transition,EMT)的分子生物学标记改变;稳定沉默Snail及Twist转录因子,transwell小室侵袭实验检测FasL处理后胃癌细胞的侵袭能力;免疫印迹检测信号通路激活状态及相应的抑制效应。结果 FasL可以诱导AGS细胞株出现EMT表型,并可促进胃癌细胞的侵袭转移能力。同时该过程中出现ERK1/2信号通路的激活,而抑制ERK1/2信号通路,可以抑制FasL诱导EMT及提高肿瘤侵袭能力的作用。胃癌组织中相应分子生物学标记的表达变化符合EMT的发生。结论 Fas信号通路能够激活ERK1/2通路诱导EMT的发生,并且能通过该机制增强胃癌细胞AGS的活动能力。     

Myofibroblast-derived PDGF-BB promotes Hedgehog survival signaling in cholangiocarcinoma cells

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cells paradoxically express the death ligand, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and, therefore, are dependent upon potent survival signals to circumvent TRAIL cytotoxicity. CCAs are also highly desmoplastic cancers with a tumor microenvironment rich in myofibroblasts (MFBs). Herein, we examine a role for MFB-derived CCA survival signals. We employed human KMCH-1, KMBC, HuCCT-1, TFK-1, and Mz-ChA-1 CCA cells, as well as human primary hepatic stellate and myofibroblastic LX-2 cells, for these studies. In vivo experiments were conducted using a syngeneic rat orthotopic CCA model. Coculturing CCA cells with myofibroblastic human primary hepatic stellate cells or LX-2 cells significantly decreased TRAIL-induced apoptosis in CCA cells, a cytoprotective effect abrogated by neutralizing platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB antiserum. Cytoprotection by PDGF-BB was dependent upon Hedgehog (Hh) signaling, because it was abolished by the smoothened (SMO; the transducer of Hh signaling) inhibitor, cyclopamine. PDGF-BB induced cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase-dependent trafficking of SMO to the plasma membrane, resulting in glioma-associated oncogene (GLI)2 nuclear translocation and activation of a consensus GLI reporter gene-based luciferase assay. A genome-wide messenger RNA expression analysis identified 67 target genes to be commonly up- (50 genes) or down-regulated (17 genes) by both Sonic hedgehog and PDGF-BB in a cyclopamine-dependent manner in CCA cells. Finally, in a rodent CCA in vivo model, cyclopamine administration increased apoptosis in CCA cells, resulting in tumor suppression. Conclusions: MFB-derived PDGF-BB protects CCA cells from TRAIL cytotoxicity by a Hh-signaling-dependent process. These results have therapeutical implications for the treatment of human CCA.     

Stress-induced glucocorticoid signaling remodels neurovascular coupling through impairment of cerebrovascular inwardly rectifying K+ channel function

Studies of stress effects on the brain have traditionally focused on neurons, without considering the cerebral microcirculation. Here we report that stress impairs neurovascular coupling (NVC), the process that matches neuronal activity with increased local blood flow. A stressed phenotype was induced in male rats by administering a 7-d heterotypical stress paradigm. NVC was modeled by measuring parenchymal arteriole (PA) vasodilation in response to neuronal stimulation in amygdala brain slices. After stress, vasodilation of PAs to neuronal stimulation was greatly reduced, and dilation of isolated PAs to external K⁺ was diminished, suggesting a defect in smooth muscle inwardly rectifying K⁺ (K_IR) channel function. Consistent with these observations, stress caused a reduction in PA K_IR2.1 mRNA and smooth muscle K_IR current density, and blocking K_IR channels significantly inhibited NVC in control, but not in stressed, slices. Delivery of corticosterone for 7 d (without stressors) or RU486 (before stressors) mimicked and abrogated NVC impairment by stress, respectively. We conclude that stress causes a glucocorticoid-mediated decrease in functional K_IR channels in amygdala PA myocytes. This renders arterioles less responsive to K⁺ released from astrocytic endfeet during NVC, leading to impairment of this process. Because the fidelity of NVC is essential for neuronal health, the impairment characterized here may contribute to the pathophysiology of brain disorders with a stress component.Stressor exposure has been linked to detrimental health effects, and the activation of stress responses is recognized as a contributory factor in many pathologies. Chronic exposure to stressors can alter neuronal physiology, and signaling in stress-associated networks, including those underlying the processing of fearful and anxiogenic stimuli such as the amygdala, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and the hippocampus, may become aberrant after chronic stress (1–3). Underlying this in part are morphological changes at the cellular level (including changes in dendritic arborization in hippocampal, BNST, and amygdalar neurons) (4) and altered expression of stress-related proteins, such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) (5), tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) (6), and polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (7). It has been suggested that such changes contribute to psychopathologies including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (8).Stress also impacts the cardiovascular system, and a developing body of literature has linked repeated/chronic stress exposure to cardiovascular disease. Indeed, high perceived job stress is associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events (9), and psychological distress has been associated with an increased risk of fatal ischemic stroke (10), for which impaired cerebrovascular endothelial function resulting from enhanced glucocorticoid release may be a contributory factor (11). Recent reports have also explored the acceleratory effects of stress on the progression of dementia and Alzheimer’s (12–15)—disease states with an important cerebrovascular component.Active regions of the brain require rapid and precise delivery of nutrients through a local elevation of blood flow, a phenomenon known as functional hyperemia. This moment-to-moment matching of blood flow to metabolic demand is ensured by the signaling mechanisms of neurovascular coupling (NVC). Astrocytes seem to play a central role in NVC by generating a calcium (Ca²⁺) wave in response to neuronal activity (16) that propagates to specialized endfoot projections, which almost completely encase intracerebral (parenchymal) arterioles (PAs) (17). This increase in endfoot Ca²⁺ evokes relaxation of juxtaposed arteriolar smooth muscle (SM) through the release of potassium (K⁺) ions and other vasodilators such as epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) (18). The elevation of K⁺ in the perivascular space activates SM inwardly rectifying K⁺ (K_IR) channels to cause PA vasodilation and increased blood flow (19). Because NVC provides a communicative bridge between the central nervous and cardiovascular systems—both of which are susceptible to stressor exposure—we reasoned that this vitally important process might also be affected by stress. Indeed, it is possible that prolonged periods of stressor exposure (e.g., 1 wk of chronic stress) could alter NVC in stress-affected regions, such as the amygdala, which responds to and is shaped by stressful events (20).In this study we provide the first examination of NVC in the amygdala and explore the mechanistic basis underlying the impairment of this process by chronic heterotypic stressor exposure. This NVC impairment may be a contributory factor in pathologies with a stress component, such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and Alzheimer’s disease. These studies may therefore pave the way for the development of novel treatment options for such disorders.