Utstein style reporting of in-hospital paediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To report paediatric in-hospital cardiac arrest data according to Utstein style and to determine the effectiveness of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in hospitalized children. Design: Retrospective 5-year case series. SETTING: Urban, tertiary-care children's hospital. PARTICIPANTS: All patients who sustained cardiopulmonary arrest. RESULTS: Altogether 227 patients experienced a cardiopulmonary arrest during the study period, 109 (48.0%) were declared dead without attempted resuscitation, and CPR was initiated in 118 (52.0%). The incidence of cardiac arrest was 0. 7% of all hospital admissions and 5.5% of PICU admissions; the incidence of CPR attempts was 0.4 and 2.5%, respectively. Most of the CPR attempts (64.4%) took place in the PICU and the most frequent aetiology was cardiovascular (71.2%). The 1-year survival rate was 17.8%. Short duration of external CPR was the best prognostic factor associated with survival. With few exceptions, the Paediatric Utstein Style was found to be applicable for reporting retrospective data from in-hospital cardiac arrests in children. CONCLUSIONS: In-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation was shown to be an uncommon event in children; the survival rate was similar to earlier studies.     

Outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in intensive care units in a university hospital

SUMMARY: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the demographic characteristics of patients who suffered cardiac arrest in our intensive care units (ICUs) as well as to identify those factors influencing outcome after resuscitation following cardiac arrest. METHODS: We reviewed the records of all patients who underwent cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in our ICUs at the Georg-August University Hospital, Goettingen, Germany, from January 1, 1999 to December 31, 2003. RESULTS: One hundred and sixty-nine patients underwent CPR. Severity of illness assessed by SAPS II score on admission was 51.8+/-18.5 (predicted mortality 46.6%). The initially monitored rhythm at the time of arrest was asystole in 51 (30.2%) patients. Ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation (VT/VF) was recorded in 65 (38.5%) and pulseless electrical activity in 49 (29.0%) patients. Twenty (23.8%), 28 (33.3%) and 33 (39.3%) patients with initially recorded asystole, VT/VF and pulseless electrical activity (PEA) rhythms, respectively, survived to ICU discharge. Eighty of the 169 patients survived to hospital discharge giving a survival rate of 47.3%. The highest ICU mortality was seen in patients admitted for neurosurgery (80%) followed by major vascular surgery (77.8%), non-surgical patients (67.4%) and patients with severe sepsis (66.7%). The occurrence of cardiac arrest within the first 24h was associated with a significantly lower ICU mortality compared to a later incident. At hospital discharge 66 patients (82.5% of the survivors) achieved good cerebral recovery, 12 patients (15.0%) were severely disabled (CPC 3) while 2 (2.5%) remained unconscious. CONCLUSION: Several factors affect the outcome from CPR. However, quicker triage to ICU, closer monitoring along with prompt intervention might minimise the consequences of cardiac arrest and its complications.     

Outcomes following cardiopulmonary resuscitation in an acute rehabilitation hospital. Clinical and ethical implications.

This retrospective study examines cases of cardiac arrest requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in an acute rehabilitation hospital. All admissions to the Center for Rehabilitation Medicine at Emory University, a 56-bed facility, are reviewed. Seventeen cases of true cardiac arrest are identified for analysis of ultimate disposition over a 10-yr period. Only one patient (5.9%) survived CPR to discharge from the rehabilitation hospital, but he died subsequent to his transfer to the acute hospital. Though the sample size is small, it reflects the total population of patients eligible for CPR who suffered a cardiac arrest. We conclude that CPR is generally not successful in the elderly inpatient rehabilitation population. The growing clinical complexity of the rehabilitation patient demands that health-care providers and their patients more regularly address decision-making issues pertinent to CPR.     

The dynamic pattern of end-tidal carbon dioxide during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: difference between asphyxial cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation/pulseless ventricular tachycardia cardiac arrest

Introduction  

Partial pressure of end-tidal carbon dioxide (PetCO2) during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) correlates with cardiac output and consequently has a prognostic value in CPR. In our previous study we confirmed that initial PetCO2 value was significantly higher in asphyxial arrest than in ventricular fibrillation/pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VF/VT) cardiac arrest. In this study we sought to evaluate the pattern of PetCO2 changes in cardiac arrest caused by VF/VT and asphyxial cardiac arrest in patients who were resuscitated according to new 2005 guidelines.     

Successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation outcome reviews

An implicit question in every pre-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) scenario is 'what will be the quality of life if a save is achieved?' This issue has implications for doctrine, policy, training and post-CPR counselling of both resuscitator and victim. Post-salvage neurological syndromes in surviving victims include amnesia, personality change, cognitive loss, depression, Parkinsonian syndromes, decorticate and decerebrate states and permanent brain damage with vegetative existence. Children who are salvaged by CPR rarely have pre-existing co-morbidities; but 75% of adults have pre-existing cardiac disease, cancer or diabetes. Such, of course, continue after a successful resuscitation. In the case of children who are resuscitated from acute hypoxic insults, the quality of life is generally good and, in the specific instance of survivors from near-drowning, some 95% will lead lives relatively unmodified. Although successful CPR resuscitation rates remain low in adults, the quality of life of those who leave hospital remains generally high. CPR involves two feature subjects, the resuscitator and the victim. Just as for the victim, so too the resuscitator's life is modified by CPR and its aftermath, whether immediate salvage has been achieved or not. This review addresses these issues, as a successful CPR (dramatic as it is) is not a conclusion but the beginning of a new phase of life for both resuscitator and victim.     

Improved neurologically intact survival with the use of an automated, load-distributing band chest compression device for cardiac arrest presenting to the emergency department

ABSTRACT: INTRODUCTION: It has been unclear if mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a viable alternative to manual CPR. We aimed to compare resuscitation outcomes before and after switching from manual CPR to load-distributing band (LDB) CPR in a multi-center emergency department (ED) trial. METHODS: We conducted a phased, prospective cohort evaluation with intention-to-treat analysis of adults with non-traumatic cardiac arrest. At these two urban EDs, systems were changed from manual CPR to LDB-CPR. Primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge, with secondary outcome measures of return of spontaneous circulation, survival to hospital admission and neurological outcome at discharge. RESULTS: A total of 1,011 patients were included in the study, with 459 in the manual CPR phase (January 01, 2004, to August 24, 2007) and 552 patients in the LDB-CPR phase (August 16, 2007, to December 31, 2009). In the LDB phase, the LDB device was applied in 454 patients (82.3%). Patients in the manual CPR and LDB-CPR phases were comparable for mean age, gender and ethnicity. The mean duration from collapse to arrival at ED (min) for manual CPR and LDB-CPR phases was 34:03 (SD16:59) and 33:18 (SD14:57) respectively. The rate of survival to hospital discharge tended to be higher in the LDB-CPR phase (LDB 3.3% vs Manual 1.3%; adjusted OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 0.47, 4.29). There were more survivors in LDB group with cerebral performance category 1 (good) (Manual 1 vs LDB 12, P=0.01). Overall performance category 1 (good) was Manual 1 vs LDB 10, P=0.06. CONCLUSIONS: A resuscitation strategy using LDB-CPR in an ED environment was associated with improved neurologically intact survival on discharge in adults with prolonged, non-traumatic cardiac arrest.     

Survival and neurologic outcome after traumatic out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest in a pediatric and adult population: a systematic review

ABSTRACT: INTRODUCTION: This systematic review is focused on the in-hospital mortality and neurological outcome of survivors after prehospital resuscitation following trauma. Data were analyzed for adults/pediatric patients and for blunt/penetrating trauma. METHODS: A systematic review was performed using the data available in Ovid Medline. 476 articles from 1/1964 - 5/2011 were identified by two independent investigators and 47 studies fulfilled the requirements (admission to hospital after prehospital resuscitation following trauma). Neurological outcome was evaluated using the Glasgow outcome scale. RESULTS: 34 studies/5391 patients with a potentially mixed population (no information was found in most studies if and how many children were included) and 13 paediatric studies/1243 children (age ≤ 18 years) were investigated. The overall mortality was 92.8% (mixed population: 238 survivors, lethality 96.7%; paediatric group: 237 survivors, lethality 86.4% = p < 0.001).Penetrating trauma was found in 19 studies/1891 patients in the mixed population (69 survivors, lethality: 96.4%) and in 3 pediatric studies/91 children (2 survivors lethality 97.8%).44.3% of the survivors in the mixed population and 38.3% in the group of children had a good neurological recovery. A moderate disability could be evaluated in 13.1% in the mixed population and in 12.8% in children. A severe disability was found in 29.5% of the survivors in the mixed patients and in 38.3% in the group of children. A persistent vegetative state was the neurological status in 9.8% in the mixed population and in 10.6% in children.For each year prior to 2010, the estimated log-odds for survival decreased by 0.022 (95%-CI: [0.038;0.006]). When jointly analyzing the studies on adults and children, the proportion of survivors for children is estimated to be 17.8% (95%-CI: [15.1%;20.8%]). The difference of the paediatric compared to the adult proportion is significant (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Children have a higher chance of survival after resuscitation of an out-of-hospital traumatic cardiac arrest compared to adults but tend to have a poorer neurological outcome at discharge.     

Cold water submersion and cardiac arrest in treatment of severe hypothermia with cardiopulmonary bypass

In the paediatric population, submersion injury with drowning or near-drowning represents a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. This study reviews retrospectively our own experiences and the literature on the use of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) to rewarm paediatric victims of cold water submersion who suffer severe hypothermia (<28 degrees C) and cardiac arrest (asystole or ventricular fibrillation). In addition to three children treated at our institution, nine other victims were found in the literature. In this cohort of 12 children aged between 2 and 12 years, there was a tendency to better outcome with lower core temperature at the beginning of extracorporeal circulation (mean temperature in nine survivors, 20 degrees C; in three non-survivors, 25.5 degrees C). The lowest temperature survived was 16 degrees C. Neither base excess, pH nor serum potassium levels were reliable prognostic factors. The lowest base excess in a survivor was -36.5 mmol/l, the lowest pH 6.29. We consider CPB as the method of choice for resuscitation and rewarming of children with severe accidental hypothermia and cardiac arrest (asystole or ventricular fibrillation). Compared with adults, children, especially smaller ones, require special consideration with regard to intravenous cannulation as drainage can be inadequate using femoral-femoral cannulation. In hypothermic children we advocate, therefore, emergency median sternotomy. Until more information regarding prognostic factors are available, children who are severely hypothermic and clinically dead after submersion in cold water--even if for an unknown length of time--should receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and be transported without delay to a facility with capabilities for CPB instituted via a median sternotomy.     

Preliminary study of the relationship between the cardiopulmonary arrest time and its consequences in trauma patients

The proposal of this research was to obtain parameters to start or maintain cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in victims of trauma. The duration of the cardiac arrest and the CPR of the survivors was described, as well as the cerebral performance and the mortality of these victims 24, 48 and 72 hours after these events had happened. With the results of this characterization the relation between duration of cardiac arrest time, CPR and mortality were described. Data for this report were collected in Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S?o Paulo emergency department. A big amount of the victims (93.4%) presents severe trauma and main cause of death was brain injury. Survival at 72 hours after CPR was 10%. The assessment, during the 72 hour period, of the survivors from cardiac arrest of traumatic cause has shown bad cerebral performance of those victims in that period of time. The survivor after the first episode of CPR was strongly related to cardiac arrest time when compared with CPR time. The time of cardiac arrest < or = 4 minutes and CPR < or = 20 minutes was related to survival more than 72 hours.     

Transoesophageal cardiac pacing is effective for cardiopulmonary resuscitation in a rat of asphyxial model

OBJECTIVE: To investigate effectiveness of transoesophageal cardiac pacing in a rat model of asphyxial cardiac arrest. METHODS: Ten minutes after the tracheal tube had been clamped, cardiac arrest (CA) occurred in 20 Sprague-Dawley rats, and the rats were assigned randomly to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in a control group or CPR combined with transoesophageal cardiac pacing in a pacing group. Restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) was defined as an unassisted pulse with a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of >or=20 mmHg for >or=1 min. RESULTS: ROSC was significantly more frequent in the pacing group compared with the control group (7/10 versus 1/10, P<0.05). Faster ROSC and longer survival trend in the pacing group were seen compared with the control group. CONCLUSION: Transoesophageal cardiac pacing is effective for CPR in a rat of asphyxial model. However, the precise mechanism is not clear and further experiments will be necessary.     

Beneficial effects of vasopressin in prolonged pediatric cardiac arrest: a case series

Children who suffer cardiac arrest have a poor prognosis. Based on laboratory animal studies and clinical data in adults, vasopressin is an exciting new vasopressor treatment modality during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). In particular, vasopressin has resulted in short term resuscitation benefits as a "rescue" pressor agent in the setting of prolonged out-of-hospital CPR for ventricular fibrillation in adults. This retrospective series presents the first evidence for resuscitation benefit of bolus vasopressin therapy in the specific setting of pediatric cardiac arrest. All episodes of CPR initiated in a 120-bed tertiary care children's hospital over a three-year period (1997-2000) were reviewed. Four children in the pediatric ICU received vasopressin boluses as rescue therapy during six cardiac arrest events, following failure of conventional CPR, advanced life support, and epinephrine vasopressor therapy. Return of spontaneous circulation for greater than 60 min occurred in three of four patients (75%) and in four of six CPR events (66%) following vasopressin administration. Two of four vasopressin recipients survived >24 h; one survived to hospital discharge and one had withdrawal of supportive therapies following family discussion. Our observations are AHA level 5 (retrospective case series) evidence that vasopressin administration may be beneficial during prolonged pediatric cardiac arrest. Such reports should pave the way for prospective clinical trials comparing vasopressor medications in the setting of pediatric cardiac arrest.     

The Utstein template and the effect of in-hospital decisions: the impact of do-not-attempt resuscitation status on survival to discharge statistics.

BACKGROUND: Variables for reporting outcome of pre-hospital cardiac arrest have been delineated in the Utstein style template. The primary outcome statistic is survival to hospital discharge (SHD). The template allows comparisons of pre-hospital care systems and has been used to determine the benefit of pre-hospital interventions. Post-resuscitation care has not been standardized and in-hospital events that affect SHD are not considered in the template. STUDY PURPOSE: To determine the frequency and timing with which do-not-attempt resuscitation (DNAR) status is conferred following resuscitation from pre-hospital cardiac arrest and to assess the impact of this action on SHD. METHODS: A 4-year retrospective, observational cohort study of all adult patients successfully resuscitated from nontraumatic pre-hospital cardiac arrest and admitted to a single municipal teaching hospital. Study variables included age, witnessed arrest, bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), initial rhythm documented by paramedics, hospital admission rate, frequency and time at which DNAR status was conferred, and SHD. RESULTS: Four hundred and eighteen adult patients experienced pre-hospital arrest and received standard advanced cardiac life support interventions during the study period. Seventy-nine patients (19%; 95% confidence interval (CI), 15-23%) survived to be admitted to the hospital. Fifty-four of these patients (68%; 96% CI, 57-78%) were subsequently placed in DNAR status. Only one of these patients had a living will or advanced directive prior to cardiopulmonary arrest. In 37 DNAR patients (68%; 95% CI, 54-81%), DNAR status was conferred within 24 h of hospital admission. For patients made DNAR within 24 h of admission, 38% had a witnessed arrest, 22% had ventricular fibrillation as the first documented arrest rhythm, and 29% received bystander CPR. When patients made DNAR are included in the calculation of SHD rate, the SHD rate for the study period was 5.3% (95% CI, 3.3-7.8%). If DNAR patients are excluded, the SHD was 6.1% (95% CI, 3.8-9.0%), representing a 15% increase in SHD rate. CONCLUSION: In-hospital care and medical decision making are not considered in the Utstein template and can have a significant effect on reported survival statistics. When assessing the benefit of pre-hospital interventions, it may be preferable to consider survival to hospital admission as the primary outcome statistic until such time as post-resuscitation care after hospital admission is rigidly standardized.     

心源性心脏骤停心肺复苏成功的分析

目的分析影响心源性心脏骤停患者心肺复苏成功的临床因素。方法选择该院收治的心源性心脏骤停患者共58例,根据复苏成功与否分成心肺复苏成功组(成功组)22例和心肺复苏失败组(失败组)36例。分析两组患者的临床资料,探讨与心肺复苏成功的相关因素。结果两组患者性别比和发病种类比较,差异无统计学意义(P0.05);成功组患者的年龄和入院时间明显低于失败组,院前给予抢救的比例明显高于失败组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。成功组患者的心脏停搏时间、抢救时间、心肺复苏循环平均次数、肾上腺素剂量和电除颤次数明显低于失败组,应用辅助机械通气的比例明显高于失败组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论心肺复苏成功的因素可能与发病年龄、入院时间、院前给予抢救的比例、心脏停搏时间、抢救时间、心肺复苏循环次数、肾上腺素剂量、平均电除颤次数和应用辅助机械通气有关。     

One-year survival and neurological outcome after pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation

OBJECTIVE: Reported survival after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in children varies considerably. We aimed to identify predictors of 1-year survival and to assess long-term neurological status after in- or outpatient CPR. DESIGN: Retrospective review of the medical records and prospective follow-up of CPR survivors. SETTING: Tertiary care pediatric university hospital. PATIENTS AND METHODS: During a 30-month period, 89 in- and outpatients received advanced CPR. Survivors of CPR were prospectively followed-up for 1 year. Neurological outcome was assessed by the Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category scale (PCPC). Variables predicting 1-year survival were identified by multivariable logistic regression analysis. INTERVENTIONS: None. RESULTS: Seventy-one of the 89 patients were successfully resuscitated. During subsequent hospitalization do-not-resuscitate orders were issued in 25 patients. At 1 year, 48 (54%) were alive, including two of the 25 patients with out-of-hospital CPR. All patients died, who required CPR after trauma or near drowning, when CPR began >10 min after arrest or with CPR duration >60 min. Prolonged CPR (21-60 min) was compatible with survival (five of 19). At 1 year, 77% of the survivors had the same PCPC score as prior to CPR. Predictors of survival were location of resuscitation, CPR during peri- or postoperative care, and duration of resuscitation. A clinical score (0-15 points) based on these three items yielded an area under the ROC of 0.93. CONCLUSIONS: Independent determinants of long-term survival of pediatric resuscitation are location of arrest, underlying cause, and duration of CPR. Long-term survivors have little or no change in neurological status.     

大鼠心肺复苏后脑组织基质金属蛋白酶及其组织抑制剂表达的研究

目的探讨心肺复苏早期脑组织基质金属蛋白酶-2（MMP-2）、MMP-9及基质金属蛋白酶组织抑制剂-1（TIMP-1）的mRNA表达变化。方法用窒息法建立大鼠心肺复苏模型。80只SD大鼠随机分为假手术对照组和复苏组，然后依据时间分为假手术或复苏自主循环恢复（ROSC）后即刻及0．5、3、6和9h组。检测各组大鼠脑组织MMP-2、MMP-9及TIMP-1的mRNA表达情况。结果心肺复苏后3h大鼠脑组织MMP-9及TIMP-1的mRNA表达水平均开始上升，6h时显著增高，MMP-9／TIMP-1比值也相应增大。MMP-2 mRNA水平在心肺复苏后9h内未见明显升高。结论心肺复苏后早期就出现MMP-9、TIMP-1的mRNA表达增加及比例失衡，而MMP-2 mRNA水平在早期无明显变化。     

Pediatric basic life support

The new international consensus and guidelines were published by American Heart Association in October 2010. These guidelines include many important changes in pediatric basic life support(BLS) based on many evidences. Especially in children, asphyxial cardiac arrest has been more common than cardiac arrest and only one third to one half victims can receive bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation(CPR). According to new guidelines, "CAB" (Chest compressions/Circulation, Airway, and Breathing/ventilation) is recommended instead of "ABC" sequence. In addition, pediatric chain of survival is revised and the section of "Look, Listen, Feel" is deleted. These changes are recommended in order to simplify training with the hope that more pediatric victims will consequently receive bystander CPR.     

Effectiveness and long-term outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in paediatric intensive care units in Spain

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the immediate effectiveness of resuscitation and long-term outcome of children who suffered a cardiorespiratory arrest when admitted to paediatric intensive care units (PICU). DESIGN AND SETTING: Secondary analysis of data from an 18-month prospective, multicentre study analysing cardiorespiratory arrest in children in 16 paediatric intensive care units in Spain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied 116 children between 7 days and 17 years of age. Data were recorded according to the Utstein style. Analysed outcome variables were sustained return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), survival to hospital discharge and survival at 1 year. Neurological and general performance outcome was assessed by means of the Paediatric Cerebral Performance Category (PCPC) and the Paediatric Overall Performance Category (POPC) scales. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: In 80 patients (69%) ROSC was achieved and it was sustained > 20 min in 69 (59.5%). At one-year follow-up, 40 children (34.5%) were alive. Survival was not associated with sex, age or weight of patients. Mortality from cardiac arrest was higher than respiratory arrest (69.8% versus 40%, p = 0.01). Patients with sepsis had a higher mortality than other diagnostic groups. Mechanically ventilated children and those treated with vasoactive drugs had a higher mortality. Initial mortality was slightly higher in patients with slow ECG rhythms (35.7%) compared to those with ventricular fibrillation (VF) or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT) (27.2%). Duration of resuscitation effort was correlated with mortality (p < 0.0001). Patients who required one or more doses of adrenaline had also a higher mortality (77.8% versus 20.7%, p < 0.0001) and survivors needed less doses of adrenaline (0.85 +/- 1.14 versus 4.4+/-2.9, p < 0.0001). At hospital discharge 86.8 and 84.6% of patients had scores 1 or 2 (normal or near-normal) in the PCPC and POPC scales. At 1-year follow-up these figures were 90.8 and 86.3%, respectively. CONCLUSION: One-third of children who suffer a cardiac or respiratory arrest when admitted to PICU survive, and most of them had a good long-term neurological and functional outcome. The duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation attempts is the best indicator of mortality.     

Long-term outcome of paediatric cardiorespiratory arrest in Spain

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the final outcome of cardiorespiratory arrest (CRA) in children and the neurological and functional state of survivors at 1 year. METHODS: An 18-month prospective, multicentre study analysing out-of-hospital and in-hospital CRA in children was carried out; 283 children between 7 days and 17 years of age were included. CRA and resuscitation data were registered according to Utstein style. The outcome variables were: sustained return of spontaneous circulation (initial survival), and survival at 1 year (final survival). The status of survivors was evaluated by means of the paediatric cerebral performance category (PCPC) scale and the paediatric overall performance category (POPC) scale at Paediatric Intensive Care Unit discharge, at hospital discharge, and at 1 year follow-up. RESULTS: In 283 children, 311 CRA episodes, 73 respiratory arrests (23.5%) and 238 cardiac arrests (76.5%) were analysed. Seventeen children suffered more than one CRA episode (range: 2-6). The initial survival was 60.2% and 1-year survival was 33.2%. The final survival was significantly higher in respiratory arrest than in cardiac arrest patients (70.0% versus 21.1%) (P < 0.0001). After 1 year follow-up, 87.3% of patients had scores 1 or 2 on the PCPC scale and 84.0% had scores 1 or 2 in the POPC scale; these results indicate that 1 year after CRA, the majority of survivors had normal neurological and functional status or showed only mild disability. CONCLUSIONS: Prognosis of CRA in children continues to be poor in terms of survival but quite good in terms of neurological and functional status among survivors. Additional strategies and efforts are needed to improve the short-term prognosis of paediatric CRA. However, the long-term outcome of survivors is reassuring.     

Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) PRIMED cardiac arrest trial methods part 1: rationale and methodology for the impedance threshold device (ITD) protocol

AIM: The primary aim of this study is to compare survival to hospital discharge with a modified Rankin score (MRS)< or =3 between standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) plus an active impedance threshold device (ITD) versus standard CPR plus a sham ITD in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Secondary aims are to compare functional status and depression at discharge and at 3 and 6 months post-discharge in survivors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Design: Prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled, clinical trial. Population: Patients with non-traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest treated by emergency medical services (EMS) providers. Setting: EMS systems participating in the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium. Sample size: Based on a one-sided significance level of 0.025, power=0.90, a survival with MRS< or =3 to discharge rate of 5.33% with standard CPR and sham ITD, and two interim analyses, a maximum of 14,742 evaluable patients are needed to detect a 6.69% survival with MRS< or =3 to discharge with standard CPR and active ITD (1.36% absolute survival difference). CONCLUSION: If the ITD demonstrates the hypothesized improvement in survival, it is estimated that 2700 deaths from cardiac arrest per year would be averted in North America alone.