慢性肾脏病门诊患者单纯收缩期高血压与肾脏病分期的关系

目的 探讨慢性肾脏病(CKD)患者中单纯收缩期高血压(ISH)与CKD分期的关系.方法 选择CKD患者626例,按血压类型分为:正常血压、单纯舒张期高血压(IDH)、ISH和双期高血压(SDH).观察4种血压亚型在CKD各期的百分比.结果 在CKD 1、2、3、4、5期,IDH患病率分别为9.1％、6.7％、2.9％、3.1％和4.1％;ISH患病率分别为0、9.2％、23.9％、28.6％和37.0％;SDH患病率分别为4.5％、8.4％、8.0％、17.3％和21.9％;血压控制率逐渐下降,分别为86.4％、75.6％、65.3％、51.0％和37.0％(P＜0.05);多因素回归分析结果显示,年龄、糖尿病和CKD分期为发生ISH的独立危险因子.与CKD 1～2期比较,CKD 3、4、5期发生ISH的OR值分别为2.388、2.697和5.980.结论 CKD患者肾功能受损的的程度与ISH进展一致.     

IgA肾病患者高尿酸血症患病率及其相关危险因素分析

目的 探讨IgA肾病患者高尿酸血症的患病率及其临床、病理危险因素.方法 回顾性分析1996年1月至2012年12月于中山大学附属第一医院行肾穿刺活检确诊为IgA肾病的2566例患者的临床及病理特征,行多因素Logistic回归分析IgA肾病患者高尿酸血症发生的影响因素.结果 2566例IgA肾病患者中,高尿酸血症的患病率为36.6％,其中CKD 1～5期各期患者高尿酸血症的患病率分别为16.2％、37.4％、66.4％、87.7％和76.4％.IgA肾病患者伴发高尿酸血症的相关危险因素包括:男性、CKD分期高、肾活检病理球性硬化比例高.肾功能正常(CKD 1～2期)IgA肾病患者伴发高尿酸血症的相关危险因素包括:男性、CKD分期高、血胆固醇水平升高及肾活检病理球性硬化比例高.肾功能受损(CKD 3～5期)IgA肾病患者伴发高尿酸血症的相关危险因素包括:CKD分期高及肾活检病理球性硬化比例高.结论 IgA肾病患者高尿酸血症的患病率为36.6％,明确IgA肾病肾功能正常及受损患者发生高尿酸血症的相关危险因素有利于本病的综合防治.     

上海邮电系统慢性肾脏病患者高血压横断面研究

目的 对上海邮电系统职工慢性肾脏病(CKD)患者的高血压患病率、知晓率、控制率和降压药使用情况进行横断面研究.方法 回顾性分析在本院肾内科门诊就诊的上海邮电系统职工初诊CKD患者810例,其中男性422例(52.1％),女性388例(47.9％),年龄(26 ～96)岁.结果 ①83.58％的CKD患者伴高血压,高血压知晓率为占92.02％,治疗率达到了80.35％,高血压控制率为19.65％;②吸烟、肥胖、糖尿病、尿酸、肾功能减退、高龄,这些变量均为上海邮电系统职工CKD门诊患者高血压发病的危险因素;③上海邮电系统初诊CKD患者使用l、2和3种或以上降压药物者分别为72.8％ (493/677)、24.3％ (165/677)和2.9％(19/677).在已服药的544例中,单药服用的患者中,降压药物中使用比例最高药物是钙离子拮抗剂(CCB)48.0％ (261/544),血管紧张素受体Ⅱ受体拮抗剂(ARB) 31.6％ (172/544),其次为血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂(ACEI)9.9％ (54/544).联合治疗方案中,使用最多的是ARB+ CCB占18.8％(102/544);④上海邮电系统初诊CKD患者的CKD知晓率:46.67％.结论 上海邮电系统职工CKD患者的高血压发病率高,高血压知晓率与治疗率均较高,而CKD的知晓率低,且高血压的控制率仍低;吸烟、肥胖、糖尿病、尿酸、肾功能减退、高龄,这些变量均为CKD患者高血压发病的危险因素.     

1514例成年慢性肾脏病住院患者病因与相关因素分析

目的：探讨慢性肾脏病（ chronic kidney disease,CKD）住院患者的病因构成,分析CKD病因与民族、年龄、性别、分期等相关因素关系。方法：选取2011年1月-2011年12月期间收住院并确诊为CKD的成年非肾移植患者（≥18岁）1514例,记录患者年龄、性别、族别、病因、血压、肾功能等资料进行统计分析。结果：（1）CKD住院患者前三位病因分别为原发性肾小球疾病、高血压、糖尿病,其病因构成分别为37.0%、25.5%、18.6%,原发性肾小球疾病是导致CKD住院患者最常见的病因;（2）CKD患者中汉族961例（63.9%）、维吾尔族364例（24.1%）、哈萨克族73例（4.9%）、回族61例（4.0%）、其他民族47例（3.1%）,各民族之间CKD病因构成无差别（P〉0.05）;（3）原发性肾小球疾病患者年龄主要分布于21岁~40岁年龄段,高血压肾病多分布于41岁~60岁年龄段,糖尿病肾病患者主要分布于〉60岁年龄段;（4） CKD住院患者中CKD1~5期分别占28.6%、12.4%、12.4%、7.7%和38.9%,其中CKD5期所占比例最高;CKD5期患者主要分布于41岁~60岁年龄段,高血压是导致CKD5期的主要原因。结论：原发性肾小球疾病是成年CKD住院患者最常见的病因,各民族之间病因构成无差别;CKD住院患者中以CKD5期居多,高血压是导致CKD5期的主要原因。     

初诊糖尿病患者高同型半胱氨酸血症与慢性肾脏病相关性研究

目的 探讨初诊糖尿病患者高同型半胱氨酸血症(HHcy)患病情况及其与慢性肾脏病(CKD)的相关性.方法 对来本院健康体检的成年人进行横断面研究,收集体检者临床资料包括年龄、性别、吸烟史等,进行人体测量(身高、体重、血压等),空腹8～10 h测定血糖、血脂、血肌酐、血尿酸、糖化血红蛋白等生化指标检测.初诊糖尿病定义为空腹血糖＞ 7.0 mmol/L和或糖化血红蛋白＞6.5％并排除既往诊断糖尿病及服用降糖药物者.HHcy定义为Hcy≥15μmol/L.CKD定义为肾功能下降[估测的肾小球滤过率(eGFR) ＜60 mL·(min·1.73m2)-1]或蛋白尿[尿常规蛋白≥1+].应用多因素logistic回归模型探讨HHcy与CKD的相关性.结果 共有1801例初诊成年糖尿病患者纳入该研究,年龄(61.3±10.1)岁,男性占83.9％,eG-FR(119.2±30.9)(范围36.4～155.9)mL· (min· 1.73m2)-1,HHcy的患病率高达28.0％.肾功能下降、蛋白尿及CKD的患病率分别为2.3％、8.1％及10.0％.其中Hcy最高四分位数组年龄、男性比例、高血压、肾功能下降及CKD患病明显大于其他三组(P＜O.001).多因素Logistic回归分析显示,HHcy与肾功能下降及CKD正相关,测定OR值分别为3.32(95％ CI:1.63～6.78)及1.45(95％ CI:1.01 ～2.08).在771例无高血压的亚组人群中分析,同样显示HHcy与CKD正相关,OR值为2.34(95％ CI:1.18 ～4.61).结论 初诊糖尿病患者HHcy患病率较高,且HHcy与CKD正相关,应在初诊糖尿病患者尤其是合并HHcy患者中加强CKD的筛查.     

非终末期肾衰竭慢性肾脏病并高钾血症56例临床分析

高钾血症是终末期肾病患者的重要合并症之一,严重高钾血症可引起致死性心律失常而危及生命。本文通过对非终末期肾衰竭慢性肾脏病（CKD）患者合并高钾血症的临床分析,旨在提高认识,加强对非终末期肾衰竭CKD患者血钾的管理,做到早预防、早发现、早治疗。     

慢性肾脏病高钾血症的长期管理

高钾血症是慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)和心力衰竭患者的常见并发症,其发病率随着疾病进展逐渐升高,且反复发作、发生间隔逐渐缩短.高钾血症反复发作,会增加CKD患者严重心血管事件发生率及病死率,因此,需要长期规范化管理.高钾血症长期管理措施包括低钾饮食、避免使用诱发高钾血症药物、纠正代...     

慢性肾脏病患者成纤维细胞生长因子23与心脏瓣膜钙化的关系研究

目的 观察慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)患者血中成纤维细胞生长因子23(fibroblast growth factor 23,FGF23)水平,探讨CKD患者FGF23的水平与心脏瓣膜钙化之间的关系.方法 选择CKD患者89例为CKD组,28例非CKD患者为对照组;将CKD组患者根据肾脏病/透析的临床实践指南(Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative,K/DOQI),按估算肾小球滤过率(estimated glomerular filtration rate,eGFR)水平分为CKD 1～2期组16例,CKD 3～4期组20例,CKD 5期组16例及CKD 5D期组37例.应用酶联免疫分析法测定血清FGF23,同时测定血清全段甲状旁腺激素水平(parathyroid hormone,iPTH)、血钙、血磷、三酰甘油、血总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇等指标.所有患者应用超声心动检测心脏瓣膜是否存在钙化.比较对照组及CKD 1～2期组、CKD 3～4期组、CKD 5期组及CKD 5D期组年龄、血钙、血磷、三酰甘油、血总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇、iPTH、FGF23水平及糖尿病、心血管疾病、瓣膜钙化比例.根据是否存在心脏瓣膜钙化将CKD患者89例分为瓣膜钙化组14例和无瓣膜钙化组75例,比较2组间年龄、相关指标、糖尿病、冠心病及透析所占比例.结果 ①CKD 5期组Log iPTH(2.40±0.26)及CKD 5D期组(2.47±0.20)较对照组(1.57±0.14)、CKD 1～2期组(1.54±0.10)、CKD 3～4期组(1.82±0.29)明显升高(P＜0.001),CKD 5D期组(2.67±0.54)的Log FGF23较对照组(1.37±0.11)、CKD 1～2期组(1.42±0.12)、CKD 3～4期组(1.62±0.26)、CKD 5期组(1.83±0.37)明显升高(P＜0.001).CKD 5D期组的心脏瓣膜钙化比例(12/37)明显高于对照组(2/28)、CKD 1～2期组(2/26)、CKD 3～4期组(1/20)及CKD 5期组(0/16),差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);②瓣膜钙化组的年龄[(73.3±9.9)岁]、三酰甘油[(4.10±2.09) mmol/L]、Log FGF23 (2.52±0.71)、透析患者所占比例(11/14)较无钙化组的年龄[(64.8±12.6)岁]、三酰甘油[(1.90±1.59)mmol/L]、Log FGF23(1.96±0.62)、透析患者所占比例(26/75)明显升高,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);③Logistic回归分析显示,年龄、Log FGF23、血总胆固醇及糖尿病病史是影响心脏瓣膜钙化的独立影响因素.结论 CKD患者血清FGF23升高,且随着肾功能的恶化,FGF23水平呈升高趋势,FGF23升高为心脏瓣膜钙化的危险因素.     

成都市城市人群慢性肾脏病流行病学调查

目的 探讨成都市城市人群中慢性肾脏病(CKD)的患病情况和相关危险因素,以及危险人群CKD的患病情况.方法 通过对成都市常住居民中的铁路职工健康体检,进行CKD及相关危险因素的问卷调查(既往史、吸烟、饮酒等)、体格检查(血压、身高和体质量等)和相关血尿指标检测(血糖、血脂、血尿酸、血肌酐、尿微量白蛋白/肌酐比值、尿常规等),了解成都市城市人群CKD的患病情况及相关危险因素,以及危险人群CKD的患病情况.结果 在5326例资料完整的人群中,经过人口年龄和性别构成比校正后,白蛋白尿的患病率为11.54％,肾功能下降的患病率为5.54％,血尿的患病率为3.87％.该人群中CKD的患病率为18.32％,知晓率为1.93％.3098例高血压、糖尿病和高血脂人群中,白蛋白尿的患病率分别为23.79％、28.00％、14.08％;肾功能下降的患病率分别为4.76％、4.53％、3.26％;血尿的患病率分别为2.94％、3.20％、2.37％.多因素Logistic回归提示,女性、高血压、糖尿病、高血脂和高体质量指数是白蛋白尿的独立危险因素;女性、年龄、高尿酸和高血压是肾功能下降的独立危险因素,丽饮酒与肾功能下降呈负相关;女性和年龄是血尿的独立危险因素.结论 成都市城市人群中,CKD的患病率较高,知晓率较已报道的城市人群低.相关危险因素包括年龄、女性、糖尿病、高血压、高血脂、高尿酸、高体质量指数等.控制代谢性疾病的发生发展可减少CKD的发生.     

CKD非透析患者血清脂多糖与CKD分期、原发病、病程和血清白蛋白间的关系

目的:探讨在慢性肾脏病(CKD)非透析患者中外周血内毒素与CKD的分期、原发病、病程和血清白蛋白的关系。方法:收集283例CKD1~5期非透析患者的一般情况、血标本,检测肾功能、血清白蛋白(Alb)、血清G阴性菌脂多糖(LPS)。结果:283例患者中,35%的患者的LPS高于正常值,中位数为6.93,总体以及CKD各期的LPS平均水平均在正常范围内,组间比较差异无统计学意义(P=0.189)。在CKD5期的患者LPS异常率最低,为19.4%。慢性肾炎、糖尿病肾病、高血压肾病是引起CKD的常见三种疾病,其中糖尿病肾病患者中LPS的异常率为18.4%,中位数为5,在三种原发病中是最低的。不同的CKD病程间LPS水平差异无统计学意义,P=0.228。所有患者中,LPS升高1~3倍的占11.3%,升高超过3倍的占23.7%。LPS升高对白蛋白没有影响,P=0.883。结论:CKD患者中,约三分之一的患者外周血内毒素高于正常值,但总体血清内毒素平均水平在正常范围内。内毒素与CKD的严重程度无关,也与CKD病程长短、营养不良无关。在慢性肾炎、糖尿病肾病和高血压肾病中,糖尿病肾病患者的内毒素异常率和含量最低。     

Left ventricular hypertrophy in predialysis chronic kidney disease: impact of cardiomuscular stress markers

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), which is a strong predictor of mortality in patients with endstage renal disease, is present in over 70% of patients commencing dialysis. However, only a few studies on LVH are available in patients before the start of dialysis treatment. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and clinical correlates of LVH in patients with advanced stages of chronic kidney disease(CKD). We performed a cross sectional study of 90 patients who had renal diseases but no history of either cardiovascular diseases or arrhythmia. Circulating levels of human atrial natriuretic peptide (hANP) were also measured. LVH was present in 40.0% of the study population. The prevalence of LVH tended to increase with progression of renal decline: 22.7% in stage 3, 43.6% in stage 4, and 48.3% in stage 5 (creatinine clearance >10 mL/min) (p = 0.15). Univariate analyses revealed that hANP and albumin were significantly different between the groups with and without LVH. Stepwise logistic regression analysis showed that hANP and albumin were selected as the independent risk factors. These findings suggest that strict control of body fluid and nutrition could prevent the progression of LVH, and as a result, could attenuate the risk of cardiovascular events in CKD.     

住院患者慢性肾脏病的危险因素分析

目的：回顾性分析慢性肾脏病（CKD）住院患者肾功能进展的危险因素。方法：收集2001年1月1日～2008年12月31日,在我院肾内科首次住院,未接受替代治疗16岁以上CKD患者655例,分析患者的性别、年龄、血压、原发病、肾穿病理、Hb、Alb、PA、UA、Ca2＋、P3-、TC、TG、LDL、HDL及肾功能进展的危险因素。结果：（1）起病较集中在31岁～60岁,占CKD的53.9%。（2）原发性肾小球疾病、糖尿病、高血压（69.5%、8.9%、8.9%）是导致CKD的主要病因。（3）58.2%患者行肾脏穿刺,病理结果以IgA肾病、系膜增生性肾炎、局灶节段性肾小球硬化、微小病变（31.2%、23.6%、11.3%、10.2%）为主。（4）各期患者血尿存在明显统计学差异（P〈0.01）;蛋白尿差异无统计学意义。与CKD1期比较,除PA、TG外,各期SBP、DBP、Hb、Alb、UA、Ca2＋、P3-、TC、LDL、HDL差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。（5）多元相关回归分析显示eGFR与Hb呈正相关（P〈0.05）,与年龄、血压、UA呈负相关（P〈0.05）。多元Logistic回归分析显示年龄、贫血、高尿酸血症、高血压是CKD肾功能进展的危险因素（P〈0.05）。结论：原发性肾小球肾炎、糖尿病、高血压是主要病因。年龄、贫血、高尿酸血症、高血压为CKD进展的危险因素。     

Risk factors associated with increased left ventricular mass index in chronic kidney disease patients evaluated using echocardiography

Background: It is still not clear which factors are associated with left ventricular mass index (LVMI) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, based on the patient's physical and biochemical parameters at the time of echocardiography. The objective of the present study was to identify factors associated with LVMI in CKD patients (predialysis patients), using echocardiography. Methods: Physical, biochemical and LVMI data evaluated by echocardiography were retrospectively analyzed in 930 CKD patients in Juntendo University Hospital, Tokyo, Japan. Results: Levels of systolic blood pressure (SBP) and hemoglobin (Hb) were independent risk factors for increased LVMI in multivariate regression analysis. SBP was significantly correlated with LVMI (r=0.314, p<0.0001). The level of Hb was inversely correlated with LVMI (r=-0.372, p<0.0001). LVMI increased with decreasing renal function. SBP was significantly higher in patients with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in CKD stages 2 and 5, and Hb was significantly lower in patients with LVH in stages 4 and 5 than in the group without LVH. Conclusions: It is important to treat hypertension and anemia to prevent LVH in CKD patients. These findings have some therapeutic implications for treatment strategies for predialysis patients.     

Effects of insulin resistance on left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with CKD stage 1–3

Background

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) existed in patients with early stage chronic kidney disease (CKD). But whether insulin resistance (IR) exists in these patients and has some definite relationship with LVH, is unknown.

Methods

Homeostatic model method was used for detecting homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) in 336 subjects including 286 patients with early stage CKD and 50 control subjects, and HOMA-IR and other clinical data in all subjects were obtained based on standard methods. Then, the relationship between LVH, IR and other relevant clinical data were analyzed.

Results

IR and LVH existed in early stage CKD patients. The prevalence of LVH in patients with IR was significantly higher than those without, and patients with LVH had a higher prevalence of IR than those without. The patients with IR or LVH had lower levels of e-GFR, hemoglobin (Hb) and total cholesterol, while higher levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Scr), intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH), CRP and systolic blood pressure (SBP). HOMA-IR had positive correlations with left ventricular mass index (LVMI). HOMA-IR and LVMI had positive correlations with BUN, Scr, iPTH and CRP, but negative with e-GFR and Hb. Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that e-GFR, FINS, Hb and SBP enter the regression equation. Binary unconditional logistic regression analysis indicated that the main risk factors for LVH were CKD and IR (P < 0.05, respectively).

Conclusion

Both IR and LVH existed in early stage CKD patients and were more severe with the development of CKD. IR had a significant correlation with LVH. Furthermore, decline of e-GFR, hypertension and anemia were also associated with both IR and LVH and may have some effects in the mechanism of IR on the development of LVH.     

Variability in CKD stage in outpatients followed in two large renal clinics

Objective

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is staged by glomerular filtration rate (GFR). CKD stages sometimes vary between routine office visits, and it is unknown if this impacts renal and patient survival separately from a cross-sectional CKD stage value. We quantified and categorized CKD stage variability in a large group of outpatients and correlated this with clinical and demographic features and with renal and patient survival.

Methods

All estimated GFRs were staged in the first observation period. CKD stages were then categorized as static, improving, worsening, or fluctuating. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify clinical variables associated with CKD stage variability. Death and dialysis progression rates were then collected and analyzed using Cox proportional regression.

Results

During a 1.1-year observation period, 1,262 patients (mean age 71.25?years) had a mean 5 eGFR??s. CKD stages were static in 60.4%, worsened in 14.4%, improved in 7.4%, and fluctuated in 17.2% of patients. Secondary analysis revealed heavy proteinuria and East Asian ethnicity to be negatively, and diabetes mellitus and previous acute kidney injury to be positively associated with improving CKD stages. Cox proportional regression of 902 patients analyzed 2.3?years later revealed a negative association with improving CKD stage and subsequent need for dialysis.

Conclusions

CKD stage changed in 40% of 1,262 elderly patients when determined 5 times in just over 1?year. Improving CKD stage was the only variability pattern significantly associated with any of the clinical outcomes when assessed 2.3?years later, being unlikely to be linked with subsequent need for dialysis.     

Association between chronic kidney disease and coronary artery calcification: the Dallas Heart Study

The hypothesis that chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with increased coronary artery calcification (CAC) was tested using data from the Dallas Heart Study, a representative sample of Dallas County residents aged 30 to 65 yr. CKD was defined as presence of microalbuminuria and GFR > or =60 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) (stage 1 to 2), or GFR <60 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) (stage 3 to 5), excluding end-stage kidney disease. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between stages of CKD and CAC scores >10, >100, and >400 versus scores < or =10 compared with no CKD while adjusting for covariates. Analyses were repeated after stratifying by presence of diabetes. The mean age was 43.9 yr, and hypertension and diabetes were noted in 31.0 and 9.8%, respectively. No association was noted between stage 1 to 2 CKD and increased CAC scores. Compared with no CKD, stage 3 to 5 CKD was associated with CAC scores >100 (odds ratio, 2.85; 95% confidence interval, 0.92 to 8.80) and >400 (odds ratio, 8.35; 95% confidence interval, 1.94 to 35.95) in the total population after adjustment for covariates, but these associations were substantially reduced after exclusion of participants with diabetes. Participants with diabetes and stage 3 to 5 CKD had a ninefold increased odds of CAC scores >10 versus scores < or =10 compared with participants with diabetes and without CKD, whereas no association was noted between stage 3 to 5 CKD and CAC scores >10 in the nondiabetic population. In conclusion, stage 3 to 5 CKD is associated with increased CAC scores, but this association may be substantially stronger among adults with diabetes. These findings need to be confirmed in study populations that include adults >65 yr of age and a larger number of CKD cases.     

Severe Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction May Reverse with Renal Transplantation: Uremic Cardiomyopathy and Cardiorenal Syndrome

Chronic heart failure (CHF) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are serious medical conditions with significant morbidity and mortality. Emerging evidence indicates that the function of these two organ systems are affected by each other in a complex interplay. Most patients with CKD suffer frequently from cardiac abnormalities including left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), left ventricular dilatation (LVD), left ventricular (LV) diastolic and/or systolic dysfunction. Although previously thought that LV systolic dysfunction was an absolute contraindication to renal transplantation, several observational studies have shown this not to be true and that transplantation can lead to significant improvement in LV systolic function. Furthermore, correction of the uremic state by renal transplantation leads to improvement of LVD and possibly regression of LVH. In fact, the reduction of LVH postkidney transplantation was shown to be dependent on adequate renal function and hypertension control. Diabetes mellitus does not seem to be a confounding factor in the improvement of uremic cardiomyopathy with renal transplantation.     

Levels of bisphenols in patients with chronic kidney disease and their correlation with renal function

Objective To observe the levels of four bisphenols (bisphenol A, B, S and F) and their correlation with renal function in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. Methods Patients with CKD were identified according to Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria. Sixty-three CKD patients and eleven healthy controls were enrolled. CKD patients were further classified as mild renal injury group (CKD stage 1 and 2, n=30), moderate renal injury group (CKD stage 3, n=19) and severe renal injury group (CKD stage 4 and 5, n=14). The levels of four bisphenols in serum were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The correlation between concentrations of four bisphenols and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was assessed by Spearman's rank correlation analysis. The associations of four bisphenols with coronary heart disease, diabetes and hypertension in CKD patients were estimated by binary multivariate logistic regression. Results (1) Four bisphenols were not detected in serum of healthy control. In the mild renal injury group the bisphenol A and bisphenol S were not detected, and patients had 5.24 (5.24, 9.38) μg/L bisphenol B and 0.74 (0.74, 0.74) μg/L bisphenol F. In the moderate renal injury group bisphenol S was not detected, and patients had 2.79 (1.01, 4.53) μg/L bisphenol A, 5.24 (5.24, 5.24) μg/L bisphenol B and 0.74 (0.74, 0.74) μg/L bisphenol F. In severe renal injury group patients had 14.30 (7.97, 18.17) μg/L bisphenol A, 0 μg/L bisphenol B, 23.73 (23.73, 136.59) μg/L bisphenol S and 0.74 (0.74, 1.42) μg/L bisphenol F. The levels of bisphenol A and bisphenol S in severe renal injury group were higher than those in the healthy control group, mild renal injury group and moderate renal injury group (all P＜0.05). Bisphenol B and bisphenol F were not statistically different among four groups. (2) Bisphenol A and bisphenol S were negatively correlated with eGFR (r=-0.779, P＜0.001; r=-0.546, P＜0.001). (3) Among CKD patients, bisphenol A was correlated with diabetes (OR=4.951, 95%CI 1.603-15.294, P=0.005), and bisphenol S was correlated with hypertension (OR=4.466, 95%CI 1.575-12.666, P=0.005). Conclusions CKD patients have a variety of bisphenol compounds, especially bisphenol A and bisphenol S. Bisphenol A and bisphenol S have high levels, and their exposures are correlated with renal function.     

Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease prior to dialysis

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Both in dialysis and in transplant patients, CVD remains the leading cause of death. There is accumulating evidence that the increase in CVD burden is present in patients prior to dialysis, due to both conventional risk factors as well as those specific to kidney disease. Of importance is that even in patients with mild kidney disease, the risk of cardiovascular events and death is increased relative to patients without evidence of kidney disease. The new classification system proposed by the National Kidney Foundation as part of the Dialysis Outcomes Quality Initiative (DOQI) process describes the five stages of kidney disease, as well as those complications associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD), in particular cardiovascular risk factors and disease. Patients with kidney disease are deemed to be at highest cardiovascular risk. CVD, defined as the presence of either congestive heart failure (CHF), ischemic heart disease (IHD), or left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), is prevalent in cohorts with established CKD (8-40%). The prevalence of hypertension, a major risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD) and LVH is high in patients with CKD (87-90%). At least 35% of patients with CKD have evidence of an ischemic event (myocardial infarction or angina) at the time of presentation to a nephrologist. The prevalence of LVH increases at each stage of CKD, reaching 75% at the time of dialysis initiation, and the modifiable risk factors for LVH include anemia and systolic blood pressure, which are also worse at each stage of kidney disease. Even under the care of nephrologists, a change in cardiac status (worsening of heart failure or anginal symptoms) occurs in 20% of patients. The presence of CVD predicts a faster decline of kidney function and the need for dialysis, after controlling for all other factors including glomerular filtration rate (GFR), age, and the presence of LVH. This article describes the new classification system for staging of CKD, defines and describes CVD in CKD, and reviews the evidence and its limitations with respect to the current understanding of CKD and CVD. Specifically, methodologic issues related to survival and referral bias limit our current understanding of the complex interaction of conventional and nonconventional kidney disease-specific risk factors. We identify the importance of well-conducted studies of patient groups with and without CVD, with and without CKD, in order to better understand the complex physiology so that treatment strategies can be appropriately applied.