肺炎支原体肺炎T细胞亚群免疫球蛋白水平变化的研究

目的：为了正确认识肺炎支原体肺炎(MPP)患儿免疫状态,该研究检测了MPP患儿外周血T细胞亚群、免疫球蛋白的变化,旨在探讨MPP患儿免疫功能的特点。方法：采用流式细胞仪技术(FCM)检测了32例支原体肺炎患儿外周血T细胞亚群及免疫球蛋白,并与28例正常儿童进行比较。结果：MPP患儿急性期外周血CD3,CD4,CD8,CD4/CD8分别为57.30±6.21个/μL,32.70±6.52个/μL,24.9±2.41个/μL,1.31±0.33,恢复期外周血CD3,CD4,CD8,CD4/CD8分别为58.20±6.10个/μL,34.92±5.93个/μL,25.87±4.72个/μL,1.39±0.42,CD4,CD4/CD8较对照组低,P<0.05。MPP患儿外周血急性期IgG,IgA,IgM分别为9.93±2.67g/L,1.63±0.69g/L,1.73±0.83g/L,恢复期分别为11.45±2.97g/L,1.94±0.84g/L,2.17±1.23g/L,IgG,IgM较对照组高,P<0.01。IgA与对照组比较无明显差异。结论：肺炎支原体肺炎时患儿存在细胞免疫和体液免疫失调,该研究为临床应用免疫调节剂提供了理论依据。     

肺炎支原体感染婴幼儿血清免疫球蛋白、补体及促炎/抗炎细胞因子水平的动态变化

目的探讨婴幼儿肺炎支原体肺炎(MPP)急性期与恢复期免疫功能的变化。方法入选MPP患儿60例,正常对照儿童60例,采用免疫散射比浊法测定免疫球蛋白(IgM、IgG、IgA)及补体C3、C4水平;ELISA法测定血清TNF-α、IL-8、IL-10、IL-13水平。结果 MPP患儿急性期IgM,补体C3、C4,TNF-α,IL-8,IL-13水平均高于恢复期或正常对照儿童,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05);MPP患儿急性期IgG水平与正常对照儿童比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),IgA和IL-10水平均低于恢复期和正常对照儿童,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05)。结论检测MPP患儿免疫球蛋白、补体及促炎/抗炎细胞因子水平的动态变化对判定病情和预后有一定的临床意义。     

肺炎支原体肺炎并肾脏损害患儿免疫功能变化

目的探讨肺炎支原体肺炎并肾脏损害(MPPKI)患儿的免疫发病机制。方法收集本市6家医院3a间收治的128例MPPKI患儿,采用金标渗滤法检测其MPAb-IgM,单克隆抗体碱性磷酸酶抗碱性磷酸酶法检测患儿T淋巴细胞亚群,散射比浊法测定其血清IgA、IgG、IgM,免疫比浊法测定C3补体,并与健康对照组比较。结果1.MPPKI患儿(128例)表现为典型急性肾炎者82例(64.06%),肾外症状性肾炎10例(7.81%),仅血尿和补体降低者24例(18.57%),肾病综合征12例(9.38%)。2.MPPKI患儿CD3 细胞[(66.65±6.46)%]与健康对照组[(65.78±12.34)%]比较无显著性差异(P>0.05);CD4 细胞[(36.46±6.68)%]与健康对照组[(39.25±5.64)%]比较有显著性差异(P<0.01);CD8 [(29.12±3.42)%]较健康对照组[(25.78±4.35)%]显著增高(P<0.01);CD4 /CD8 比值降低(1.06±0.38),与健康对照组比较(1.86±0.46),有显著性差异(P<0.01)。3.MPPKI患儿血清IgG[(16.66±3.42)g/L]、IgM[(3.96±0.66)g/L]水平明显高于健康对照组[(14.48±2.54)g/L,(2.24±0.56)g/L],差异均有显著性(Pa<0.01);IgA水平[(3.06±0.46)g/L]与健康对照组[(2.95±0.55)g/L]比较无显著性差异(P>0.05);C3补体[(506±166)mg/L]明显低于健康对照组[(529±182)mg/L],有显著性差异(P<0.01)。结论MPPKI同时存在细胞免疫和体液免疫功能失调。     

病毒性肺炎患儿自然杀伤细胞亚群、T细胞亚群及血IL-2、IL-4、INF-γ变化的研究

目的 探讨病毒性肺炎患儿自然杀伤(NK)细胞亚群、T细胞亚群及血IL-2、IL-4、INF-γ的动态变化及临床意义.方法 采用流式细胞术测定32例病毒性肺炎患儿急性期(肺炎起病2?d内)、恢复期(肺炎起病5?d内)外周血NK细胞亚群、T细胞亚群,用ELISA法测定血IL-2、IL-4、INF-γ水平,用乳酸脱氢酶释放法测定NK细胞活性变化,并与30例健康对照组儿童进行比较.结果 (1) 病毒性肺炎患儿CD16+CD56+、CD16+NK细胞在急性期分别为(0.73±0.17)%、(0.39±0.2)%,恢复期分别为(1.47±0.22)%、(0.89±0.14)%;急性期与恢复期比较,恢复期CD16+CD56+、CD16+NK细胞明显升高(P<0.01),但均显著低于对照组(P<0.01).两组NK细胞亚群变化与其活性改变呈正相关.病毒性肺炎患儿CD56+NK细胞与健康儿童差异无显著性(P>0.05).(2) 与对照组相比,病毒性肺炎患儿的急性期、恢复期IL-2、IL-4均无明显改变,差异无显著性(P>0.05);急性期INF-γ无明显改变,差异无显著性(P>0.05),而恢复期INF-γ[(28.10±1.38)?μg/L]明显高于急性期[(22.78±1.19)?μg/L],差异有非常显著性(P<0.01).(3) 与对照组相比,病毒性肺炎患儿CD4+、CD4+/CD8+T细胞计数在急性期与恢复期均无明显改变,差异无显著性(P>0.05).病毒性肺炎急性期、恢复期CD8+T细胞均低于对照组,差异有显著性(P<0.05),但病毒性肺炎急性期、恢复期间差异无显著性(P>0.05).结论 病毒性肺炎患儿NK细胞活性降低,活性与亚群数目呈正相关;病毒性肺炎患儿抑制性T细胞功能低下.病毒性肺炎急性期NK细胞激活是多因素共同作用的结果 .     

肺炎支原体肺炎患儿体液免疫功能变化的研究

目的 探讨肺炎支原体肺炎(MPP)患儿血清免疫球蛋白(Ig)、免疫复合物(Ic)和补体(C)成分含量变化及在MPP发病机制中的作用.方法 87例均选自2007年1月至2008年12月收治的住院患儿,符合MPP诊断标准,在急性期和恢复期分别检测体液免疫功能(IgG、IgA、IgM、C3、C4、IC),同时选择80例健康体检儿童作为对照组.结果 MPP患儿急性期和恢复期血清IgG、IgM、IC、C3、CA含量均明显高于正常对照组(P＜0.01).结论 MPP患儿体液免疫活性变化在MPP发病机制中起重要作用;调节患儿机体免疫功能对MPP的防治具有重要的临床意义.     

缺氧缺血性脑病新生儿体液免疫功能的变化及其影响因素

目的 探讨HIE新生儿体液免疫功能变化及各种围生因素对体液免疫功能的影响.方法 收集62例HIE患儿(HIE组)和30例健康新生儿(健康对照组)股静脉血标本3 mL,采用流式细胞仪检测各组新生儿外周血B淋巴细胞CD19、CD25表达,速率散色比浊法测定各组新生儿IgG、IgM、IgA及补体C3、C4水平.采用SPSS 11.5软件进行统计学分析.结果 1.HIE组患儿CD19+,CD19+、CD25+分别为(17.93±3.10)%、(0.64±0.42)%,IgM、IgA、补体C3、C4水平分别为(0.13±0.05) g/L,(0.14±0.07)g/L,(0.62±0.12)g/L,(0.10±0.03)g/L,与健康对照组相比均有统计学意义(Pa<0.05,0.01);IgG[(10.68±2.23)g/L]与健康对照组比较无统计学差异(P>0.05).2.不同病情分度HIE患儿CD19+、CD19+、CD25+及IgM、IgA、补体C3、C4水平比较均有统计学差异(Pa<0.05),重度HIE患儿明显低于轻中度HIE患儿(Pa<0.05,0.01).3.CD19+、IgA、补体C4均与Apgar评分呈正相关,窒息程度越重,其降低越明显,IgG、IgM水平与羊水粪染有相关性,母乳喂养新生儿IgA水平较高,出生体质最与IgG水平呈正相关.结论 HIE可引起体液免疫功能的变化,与病情程度相关,喂养方式、出生体质量、羊水粪染程度、Apgar评分对体液免疫功能有一定影响.     

轮状病毒肠道外感染与血清甘露聚糖结合蛋白水平的关系研究

目的 探讨轮状病毒肠道外感染患儿血清甘露聚糖结合蛋白(MBP)水平的变化及其与轮状病毒肠道外感染的关系.方法 采用双抗体夹心酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)测定76例轮状病毒肠道外感染患儿和63例单纯轮状病毒肠炎患儿不同病程中的血清MBP水平以及50例健康对照组小儿血清MBP水平.结果 轮状病毒肠道外感染患儿急性期血清MBP为(176.35±113.12)μg/L,明显低于单纯轮状病毒肠炎急性期水平(392.27±128.96)μg/L以及健康对照组小儿MBP血清水平(676.25±248.63)μg/L,差异有显著性(P＜0.001);轮状病毒肠道外感染患儿恢复期血清MBP水平为(358.63±106.54)μg/L,低于单纯轮状病毒肠炎恢复期水平[(558.49±173.24)μg/L]以及健康对照组小儿血清MBP水平,差异有显著性(P＜0.001);轮状病毒肠道外感染导致的肺炎、肝损害、心肌损害以及中枢神经系统损害急性期患儿血清MBP水平分别为(198.24±126.47)μg/L、(169.34±124.38)μg/L、(184.62±123.64)μg/L、(180.74±126.86)μg/L,差异无显著性(P＞0.05).结论 轮状病毒肠道外感染患儿急性期及恢复期血清MBP水平明显低于单纯轮状病毒肠炎急性期及恢复期血清MBP水平,但轮状病毒肠道外感染导致的不同肠道外脏器损害患儿急性期血清MBP水平无显著差异;轮状病毒肠道外感染的发生与血清MBP水平低下密切相关.     

肺炎支原体肺炎患儿血清白细胞介素-6及可溶性白细胞介素-6受体活性变化及意义

目的：为正确认识肺炎支原体肺炎(MPP)患儿免疫状态，该研究检测了MPP和非肺炎支原体肺炎患儿血清白细胞介素6(IL6)及可溶性白细胞介素6受体(sIL6R)的变化，探讨其对MPP和非MPP患儿病情的影响，并为选择合理的MPP治疗手段提供理论依据。方法：用ELISA法检测MPP患儿(n=41)及非MPP患儿(n=20)急性期和恢复期血清IL-6及sIL-6R含量。结果：①MPP 患儿血清IL-6急性期和恢复期分别为 2.01±0.41，1.12±0.67 ng/L；sIL-6R急性期和恢复期分别为 1.87±0.25，1.92±0.27 μg/L，均明显高于正常对照组 0.37±0.52 ng/L，1.71±0.15 μg/L，差异有显著性(P<0.01)；MPP患儿恢复期血清IL-6含量较急性期明显下降，差异有显著性(P<0.01)，而sIL-6R恢复期与急性期比较差异无显著性(P>0.05)；②非MPP患儿血清IL-6急性期及恢复期分别为1.56±0.26，0.84±0.63 ng/L，明显高于正常对照组，差异有显著性(P<0.01或P<0.05)，而血清sIL-6R与对照组比较差异无显著性(P>0.05)；非MPP患儿急性期血清IL-6高于恢复期，差异有显著性(P<0.05)，血清sIL-6R急性期与恢复期比较差异无显著性(P>0.05)；③MPP患儿急性期血清IL-6、sIL-6R含量较非MPP患儿急性期升高(P<0.01或P<0.05)；MPP患儿恢复期血清IL-6含量与非MPP患儿恢复期的差异无显著性(P>0.05)；MPP患儿恢复期血清sIL-6R含量明显高于非MPP患儿恢复期(P<0.01)。结论：MPP患儿血清IL-6及sIL-6R改变较非MPP患儿明显，提示MPP患儿免疫功能改变较非MPP患儿显著，IL-6及sIL-6R参与了MPP的发生和发展，有必要对MPP患儿进行免疫调节治疗。     

反复呼吸道感染患儿T细胞亚群、免疫球蛋白及Th极化的临床研究

目的 探讨反复呼吸道感染(recurrent respiratory tract infection,RRTI)患儿T细胞亚群、免疫球蛋白的变化及Th细胞的极化状态.方法 采用流式细胞仪、快速免疫比浊法及双抗体夹心ABC-ELISA法,对28例RRTI患儿及26例正常对照组儿童T细胞亚群、免疫球蛋白及Th细胞的极化状态进行检测.结果 RRTI患儿T细胞亚群CD3+、CD4+的百分含量及CD4+/CD8+比值分别为(59.84±3.31)％、(28.96±3.19)％及1.05 ±0.15,均明显低于正常对照组儿童[(63.55±3.53)％、(32.74±3.25)％、1.20±0.16)](P＜0.01),CD8+的百分含量为(26.51 ±2.23)％,则明显高于正常对照组儿童(24.62±2.14)％(P＜0.01).RRTI患儿IgG、IgA含量分别为(9.13±1.28) g/L、(1.02±0.19) g/L,均显著低于正常对照组儿童[(10.68±1.71) g/L、(1.22 ±0.21) g/L](P＜0.01),而IgM含量两组间差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).RRTI患儿IFN-γ为(6.93±1.69) pg/ml,显著低于正常对照组儿童[(19.07 ±1.82) pg/ml] (P ＜0.01);而IL-4含量两组间差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 RRTI患儿存在细胞免疫、体液免疫功能紊乱以及Th细胞的极化异常,可能是引起RRTI和病程迁延不愈的原因之一.     

PICU危重症患者免疫变化研究

目的 研究危重症儿童细胞免疫及体液免疫的变化情况.方法 选取复旦大学附属儿科医院2015年4月至2015年9月PICU患儿73例,取入院48 h内外周血,采用流式细胞仪检测淋巴细胞亚群、速率免疫散射比浊法测体液免疫水平、流式细胞仪-DHR分析法测中性粒细胞功能.23例患儿于入院第7天做第2次检测.选择外科择期手术前患儿10例作为对照组.结果 (1)入院48 h内,危重症患儿CD3+T细胞和CD8+T细胞的比例为(57.43±13.46)%、(21.26±7.87)%,较对照组[(66.24±5.27)%、(26.82±7.63)%]明显降低(P<0.05);CD4+T细胞和NK细胞的比例为(33.42±11.29)%、(8.83±7.77)%,较对照组[(34.89±4.94)%、(11.34±5.60)%]无显著变化(P<0.05);B细胞比例[(31.69±13.83)%]较对照组[(21.08±7.24)%]明显升高(P<0.05);中性粒细胞活化率[(14.32±14.81)%]与正常参考值(0~10%)相比明显升高,受PMA刺激后活化率大于90%;补体C3血浆水平[(0.88±0.31)g/L]较对照组[(1.19±0.18)g/L]明显降低(P<0.05).(2)23例患儿治疗1周后CD3+细胞、CD4+细胞比例[(61.20±13.56)%、(36.79±9.95)%]较初入ICU时[(56.80±13.99)%、(32.86±10.87)%]显著升高(P<0.05),中性粒细胞活化情况和PMA刺激后活化率与入院时比较无显著差异,IgA、IgM和补体C3[(0.98±0.75)g/L、(1.00±0.39)g/L、(1.15±0.34)g/L]较入ICU时[(0.80±0.69)g/L、(0.86±0.48)g/L、(0.93±0.23)g/L]显著升高(P<0.05).结论 儿童危重症患者在疾病初期出现免疫紊乱,细胞免疫变化最明显,1周后免疫指标有所恢复.     

Allergic factors associated with the development of asthma and the influence of cetirizine in a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial: First results of ETA®

There is a common progression known as the allergic march from atopic dermatitis to allergic asthma. Cetirizine has several antiallergic properties that suggest a potential effect on the development of airway inflammation and asthma in infants with atopic dermatitis. Methods. Over a two year period, 817 infants aged one to two years who suffered from atopic dermatitis and with a history of atopic disease in a parent or sibling were included in the ETAC^® (Early Treatment of the Atopic Child) trial, a multi-country, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. The infants were treated for 18 months with either cetirizine (0.25mg/ kg b.i.d.) or placebo. The number of infants who developed asthma was compared between the two groups. Clinical and biological assessments including analysis of total and specific IgE antibodies were performed. Results. In the placebo group, the relative risk (RR) for developing asthma was elevated in patients with a raised level of total IgE (≥ 30 kU/I) or specific IgE (≥ 0.35 kUA/I) for grass pollen, house dust mite or cat dander (RR between 1.4 and 1.7). Compared to placebo, cetirizine significantly reduced the incidence of asthma for patients sensitised to grass pollen (RR = 0.5) or to house dust mite (RR = 0.6). However, in the population that included all infants with normal and elevated total or specific IgE (intention-to-treat - ITT), there was no difference between the numbers of infants developing asthma while receiving cetirizine or placebo. The adverse events profile was similar in the two treatment groups. Discussion. Raised total IgE level and raised specific IgE levels to grass pollen, house dust mite or cat dander were predictive of subsequent asthma. Cetirizine halved the number of patients developing asthma in the subgroups sensitised to grass pollen or house dust mite (i.e. 20% of the study population). In view of the proven safety of the drug, we propose this treatment as a primary pharmacological intervention strategy to prevent the development of asthma in specifically sensitised infants with atopic dermatitis.     

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孤独症谱系障碍(autistic-spectrum disorders,ASDs)近年来患病率逐年攀升至1%左右,其症状往往伴随终生,成为严重威胁儿童健康和发展的神经发育性疾患;注意缺陷多动障碍(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,ADHD)是儿童期最常见的精神障碍,国内报道患病率为4.13%～5.83%,其症状可延续至青少年期,甚至到成年期[1]。这两类精神障碍在成年期的临床表现、共患病、治疗策略和预后与儿童期有哪些不同呢?本文通过回顾相     

EXCITING NEW TREATMENT APPROACHES FOR PATHYPHYSIOLOGIC MECHANISMS OF SICKLE CELL DISEASE

During the past several decades, our understanding of the complex pathophysiology of vasoocclusion associated with sickle cell disease has improved greatly. Interaction of genes, hemoglobin molecules, red cell membrane and metabolic changes, cell-cell interactions and cell-plasma interactions, red cell adhesion to vascular endothelium, activation of coagulation, and vascular reactivity play a role in vaso occlusion. Penicillin prophylaxis of pneumococcal infections and appropriate use of blood transfusions and other supportive measures improved survival of sickle cell patients. Hydroxyurea made a major impact on sickle cell therapy when it was shown to decrease acute painful episodes, acute chest syndrome, and the need for blood transfusion in adults. Significant experience in the use of hydroxyurea has been accumulated in older children. The benefits and risks of hydroxyurea for younger children and long-term risks in all patients will be evaluated in future investigations. Other promising therapies include butyrate compounds, clotrimazole, magnesium supplementation, poloxamer 188, antiadhesion agents, anticoagulant approaches, and nitric oxide. Hemopoietic transplantation remains the only curative therapy. However, several transgenic mouse models are available for studies of gene therapy or other treatment approaches on biochemical, cellular, and pathologic effects of mutant genes.     

Infiltrations of Epstein-Barr virus-carrying cells in granular lymphocyte-proliferative disorders corresponding to chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection

A 21-year-old man with granular lymphocyte-proliferative disorders (GLPD) associated with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is described. Chromosomal analyses revealed several clonal abnormalities and two of them were mainly repetitious. High copy numbers of monoclonal EBV genome were also detected in the proliferative large granular lymphocytes (LGLs), indicating the monoclonal expansion of EBV-infected LGLs. The patient had an indolent course for several years, and there was no evidence of infiltrations of his bone marrow until the end stage. At autopsy, microscopic studies revealed marked infiltrations of LGL in the liver and spleen, and the infiltrating cells were NK-cell immunophenotype. The infiltrated LGLs showed latency I.     

LUTEINIZING HORMONE RECEPTOR MUTATIONS IN DISORDERS OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND CANCER

Human male sexual development is regulated by chorionic gonadotropin (CG) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Aberrant sexual development caused by both activating and inactivating mutations of the human luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) have been described. All known activating mutations of the LHR are missense mutations caused by single base substitution. The most common activating mutation is the replacement of Asp-578 by Gly due to the substitution of A by G at nucleotide position 1733. All activating mutations are present in exon 11 which encodes the transmembrane domain of the receptor. Constitutive activity of the LHR causes LH releasing hormone-independent precocious puberty in boys and the autosomal dominant disorder familial male-limited precocious puberty (FMPP). Both germline and somatic activating mutations of the LHR have been found in patients with testicular tumors. Activating mutations have no effect on females. The molecular genetics of the inactivating mutations of the LHR are more variable and include single base substitution, partial gene deletion, and insertion. These mutations are not localized and are present in both the extracellular and transmembrane domain of the receptor. Inactivation of the LHR gives rise to the autosomal recessive disorder Leydig cell hypoplasia (LCH) and male hypogonadism or male pseudohermaphroditism. Severity of the clinical phenotype in LCH patients correlates with the amount of residual activity of the mutated receptor. Females are less affected by inactivating mutation of the LHR. Symptoms caused by homozygous inactivating mutation of the LHR include polycystic ovaries and primary amenorrhea.     

Resurgence of measles in Singapore: profile of hospital cases

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the profile of cases of measles seen at a general hospital during a recent outbreak that occurred despite a measles vaccination program. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective study from January 1991 to March 1998. All patients with measles (ICD code 055. 9) seen at the emergency unit or as inpatients were included. RESULTS: There were 87 cases identified. The diagnosis was clinical in all and proven serologically in 71%. Eighty-five per cent of the cases occurred between January 1997 and March 1998. There was a bi-modal age distribution with peaks in the very young (相似文献   

Personality profiles and heart rate variability (vagal tone) in children with recurrent abdominal pain

The aim of the study was to explore psychological factors and autonomic activity in children with recurrent abdominal pain and to compare them with those in a control group of healthy children. The Personality Inventory for Children was used for assessment of developmental, emotional and psychosocial factors in 25 children with recurrent abdominal pain (age, 7-15 y). Parasympathetic and sympathetic functions in these children and in 23 healthy control subjects (age, 7-13 y) were also investigated, non-invasively using a computerized polygraph. Vagal tone (parasympathetic function) was indexed by calculation of respiratory sinus arrhythmia in beats/min. Skin conductance (sympathetic function) was recorded by the constant current method. On the Personality Inventory for Children, 16 patients had high scores on somatic concern. Several patients had scores in the clinical range for depression, withdrawal and anxiety, but the mean scores for these personality profile scales were well within the normal range of healthy children. Interestingly, there was a spike on the L (Lie)-scale for most of the patients and 15 patients had scores above or close to the clinical cut-off value. As compared with the scores in healthy children, vagal tone and sympathetic tone were normal. Conclusion: Many children with recurrent abdominal pain have scores in the clinical range for depression, withdrawal, anxiety and L-scale indicating coping problems, denial and a trend towards somatic concern that may contribute to the evolution of abdominal pain. Autonomic nerve activity was not disturbed in these children.     

Overcoming surfactant inhibition with polymers

Inhibition of the function of pulmonary surfactant in the alveolar space is an important element of the pathophysiology of many lung diseases, including meconium aspiration syndrome, pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The known mechanisms by which surfactant dysfunction occurs are (a) competitive inhibition of phospholipid entry into the surface monolayer (e.g. by plasma proteins), and (b) infiltration and destabilization of the surface film by extraneous lipids (e.g. meconium-derived free fatty acids). Recent data suggest that addition of non-ionic polymers such as dextran and polyethylene glycol to surfactant mixtures may significantly improve resistance to inhibition. Polymers have been found to neutralize the effects of several different inhibitors, and can produce near-complete restoration of surfactant function. The anti-inhibitory properties of polymers, and their possible role as an adjunct to surfactant therapy, deserve further exploration.     

Understanding infant formula

The World Health organisation recommends breast feeding infants for the first six months of life. When this breast feeding does not occur either through parental choice or medical need, infant formulas will be required. There is a bewildering array of formulas on the UK market for many different requirements. When faced with an unsettled infant many parents (and healthcare professionals) will experiment with the infant formula available and then attend the paediatric clinic looking for help and advice. It is therefore essential that paediatricians understand what milks are available and what the key differences between different products are. This review attempts to provide a simple guide through many of the formulations currently available in the UK; and offers advice for the dietary management of the child with extra calorie requirements, infants with cow's milk protein allergy, gastro oesophageal reflux disease, apparent unresolved hunger and infantile colic. Whatever the underlying condition, there is likely to be an infant formula that is suitable in this generation of ever expanding formulations.