Relationships among measures of social cognition and measures of social skill

This study was designed to examine relationships among measures of social cognition, social competence, and actual social behaviors observed naturalistically. Subjects were twenty-three kindergarteners who completed standardized tests of social cognition and mental maturity. Teacher ratings and ratings of peer popularity were also obtained for each child. The children were then observed over a 90-day period, as they worked together in small groups on tasks assigned by the teacher. The only kind of observed social behavior significantly related to performance on the test of social cognition was negative or aggressive comments, suggesting that more socially sophisticated children may have perceived social interactions as opportunities to manipulate or control their peers. Rating scales completed by the teacher emerged as the most accurate gauges of observed social behaviors.     

Child,Family, and Neighborhood Associations with Parent and Peer Interactive Play During Early Childhood

To examine national patterns of peer and parent interactive play opportunities that enhance early learning/socialization. Bivariate and multivariable analyses of cross-sectional data on 22,797 children aged 1–5 years from the National Survey of Children’s Health 2007 were performed to determine the child, family, and neighborhood factors associated with four parent-initiated activities. Outcomes measures included time (days/week) children spent: participating in peer play; being read to; sung to/told stories; and taken on family outings. Covariates included race/ethnicity, poverty, TV watching, childcare, child and maternal physical and mental health, family factors (structure, size, language, stress, education), and neighborhood factors (amenities, support, physical condition, safety). According to adjusted regression models, minority children from lower income, non-English-speaking households with limited education, poorer maternal health and greater parenting stress were read to/told stories less than children without these characteristics, while neighborhood factors exerted less influence. In contrast, significant reductions in days/week of peer play were associated with unsupportive neighborhoods and those with the poorest physical conditions and limited amenities. Likewise, reductions in outings were associated with fewer neighborhood amenities. The findings of this study indicate that a variety of child, family, and neighborhood factors are associated with parent-initiated behaviors such as reading, storytelling, peer interactive play, and family outings. Appropriate evidence-based home visiting interventions targeting child health, parenting skills, early childhood education, and social services in at-risk communities would appear to be appropriate vehicles for addressing such parent-initiated play activities that have the potential to enhance development.     

Multiple Child Care Arrangements and Common Communicable Illnesses in Children Aged 3 to 54 Months

The study examined the relationship between the number of concurrent child care arrangements and children’s incidence of communicable illnesses throughout the first 4½ years of life, and whether this association is mediated by the total number of children across care settings. Within-child fixed effects regression models were used to relate changes in the numbers of concurrent nonparental arrangements to changes in children’s illnesses using longitudinal data from the NICHD’s Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,265). 52 % of children attended multiple child care arrangements at least once from 3 to 54 months. Increases in the number of arrangements were associated with a 15 % increase in respiratory problems among children 3–54 months of age, and a 25 % increase in otitis media among children 36–54 months. Associations were smaller among African American children compared to European American and other-race children. Findings suggest that the number of peers with which a child comes into contact at child care mediates the association between increases in number of arrangements and increases in reported respiratory problems. Children attending multiple child care arrangements prior to kindergarten entry experience slightly more contemporaneous communicable diseases, relative to attending single nonparental arrangements, through exposure to more peers.     

The Effects of Race,Gender, and Gender-Typed Behavior on Children’s Friendship Appraisals

From a young age, children’s peer appraisals are influenced by the social categories to which peers belong based on factors such as race and gender. To date, research regarding the manner in which race- and gender-related factors might interact to influence these appraisals has been limited. The present study employed an experimental vignette paradigm to investigate the relative influences of target peers’ race, gender, and gender-typed behavior toward 4- to 6-year-old Chinese children’s (N?=?119, 62 girls, 57 boys) peer appraisals. Appraisals were assessed via (1) a rating scale measuring children’s interest in being friends with a range of hypothetical target peers varying in race, gender, and gender-typed behavior, and (2) a forced-choice rank-order task in which children indicated their preferences for four hypothetical target peers who varied from themselves on either race, gender, or gender-typed behavior, or were similar to themselves on all three traits. There was little evidence to suggest children’s rank-ordered peer preferences in relation to race were influenced by whether the other-race presented was White (preferred relatively more) or Black (preferred relatively less). In contrast, gender-related factors (i.e., rater gender, target gender, target gender-typed behavior) had more robust influences on peer preferences for both outcome measures. Gender-conforming peers were preferred over gender-nonconforming peers, and target boys displaying feminine behavior were less preferred than target girls displaying masculine behavior. The results help characterize cross-cultural (in)consistencies in children’s social preferences in relation to peers’ race and gender.

     

The Influence of Peers on Children's Socialization to Gender Roles

As children move through childhood, there are many environmental influences on their socialization to adult roles. These influences include parents, school, the media, and peers. Peer relationships play an important role in the development of a child's self concept and have a strong impact on how children view the roles of males and females in our society. The perpetuation of gender biases and stereotypes often is begun in the home and then further reinforced by the peer group. This overview of literature dealing with the influence of peers on children's gender role socialization suggests that strict adherence to traditional gender roles, while limiting to children, is strongly encouraged by the peer group and is reinforced by parents, schools, and the media.     

Peer Relationships and Play Behaviors of Children in Three Different Sized Classes Over a Four Month Period

Class size effects on children's social interaction with peers and teachers were studied. Studies show that large class sizes negatively influenced the quality of adult‐child interactions. However, based on previous studies, it is suspected that large class sizes may not negatively affect children's peer relationships. Subjects were 70 preschoolers and seven teachers in three 40, three 30, and one 20 sized classes in Korea. Early in a semester and at the end of the semester, sociometric interviews were done to identify peer relationships. Children's play behaviors and teachers’ behaviors were observed. Results showed that teachers’ behaviors did not significantly differ when their education and training backgrounds were similar. However, children in various sized classes showed differences in their relationship formations and play behaviors with peers across the semester. This study concludes class size affects children's peer networks, and the differences in play behavior may be related to the differences in peer relationships.     

Kindergarten Social-Emotional Competence: Developmental Predictors and Psychosocial Implications

Forty-nine children ( M age =46.36 v mths) participated in a study of the predictors of social-emotional competence in kindergarten. This study longitudinally examined relations among child-mother attachment at age 3, family stress at ages 3, 4, and 5, and social-emotional outcomes in kindergarten. Attachment was measured using the Attachment Q-Set and family stress was determined using the Life Experiences Survey. At kindergarten age, mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18, teachers completed the Preschool Socioaffective Profile, and focal children's peers completed a sociometric task to determine peer popularity. Results suggest that less secure children are more aggressive and less socially competent in kindergarten, and children who experience more family stress in their preschool years are more aggressive and anxious and less socially competent in kindergarten than their peers who experience less family stress in those same years. Teachers report that boys are more aggressive and anxious in the kindergarten classroom than are girls.     

Maternal-Child Dyads of Functioning: the Intergenerational Impact of Violence Against Women on Children

Violence against women is a global epidemic with potential consequences of injury, illness, and death. Children exposed to the violence may also be impacted with functional impairments. Little is known of the inter-generational impact of violence experienced by the mother from an intimate partner on functioning of her children. No dyad analysis was found in the literature. To examine the inter-generational impact of violence against women on the behavioral functioning of children, 300 mothers reporting intimate partner abuse and one randomly chosen child, age 18 months to 16 years of age; were evaluated for borderline and clinical diagnostic levels of problem behaviors. Linear, Logistic, and Ordinal regression models were applied. Mothers’ problem behavior scores were significantly related to children’s problem behavior scores (internalizing r = 0.611, externalizing r = 0.494, total problems r = 0.662, all ps < 0.001). Mothers who reported clinical and borderline clinical internalized problems (i.e., depression, anxiety) were 7 times more likely to have children with the same problems and mothers with borderline clinical and clinical external problems (i.e., aggression, hostility) were 4.5 times more likely to have children with the same external problems. These dyadic analyses provide evidence of a direct relationship of maternal functioning on child behavioral functioning. Intervention strategies to decrease internalizing maternal behavioral problems, such as depression, anxiety, and post traumatic stress disorder, and/or externalizing problems, such as hostility and aggression, can be expected to have a pass through, secondary impact on the behavioral functioning of children. Awareness of the relationship between intimate partner violence against mothers and child behavioral function can support interventions that decrease the distress experienced by mothers and their children, interrupt intergenerational transmission of abusive behaviors, and promote better maternal child functioning.     

Improving Young Children’s Social and Emotional Competence: A Randomized Trial of the Preschool “PATHS” Curriculum

This paper reports the results from a randomized clinical trial evaluating an adaptation of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies curriculum (PATHS) for preschool-age children in Head Start. PATHS is a universal, teacher-taught social-emotional curriculum that is designed to improve children's social competence and reduce problem behavior. Twenty classrooms in two Pennsylvania communities participated in the study. Teachers in the 10 intervention classrooms implemented weekly lessons and extension activities across a 9-month period. Child assessments and teacher and parent reports of child behavior assessments were collected at the beginning and end of the school year. Analysis of covariance was used to control for baseline differences between the groups and pretest scores on each of the outcome measures. The results suggest that after exposure to PATHS, intervention children had higher emotion knowledge skills and were rated by parents and teachers as more socially competent compared to peers. Further, teachers rated intervention children as less socially withdrawn at the end of the school year compared to controls.     

Social correlates of cognitive style in young children

This study examines several social correlates of field dependent #opFD#cp and field independent #opFI#cp children. Five-year-old kindergarten children's #op28,14 males and 14 females#cp cognitive style and social behaviors were assessed. The results challenged the theory as more FI children were not able to assume a role and solve a problem. In addition, the children's social competence showed that teachers perceived the more FD children as more socially competent. Teachers also perceived FD pairs of children where one child was accepted and the other was rejected as more socially competent. Both FD and FI children who were rejected as playmates by other children were found to engage in more social play. FD children more than FI children tended to play more in the different play areas. FD children's frequency of play related to the different play areas. When play areas and play behaviors were integrated, more relationships were found with Fl children than with FD children. FI children engaged in more physical, manipulative, and block play.     

Child, family, and neighborhood associations with parent and peer interactive play during early childhood

To examine national patterns of peer and parent interactive play opportunities that enhance early learning/socialization. Bivariate and multivariable analyses of cross-sectional data on 22,797 children aged 1-5 years from the National Survey of Children's Health 2007 were performed to determine the child, family, and neighborhood factors associated with four parent-initiated activities. Outcomes measures included time (days/week) children spent: participating in peer play; being read to; sung to/told stories; and taken on family outings. Covariates included race/ethnicity, poverty, TV watching, childcare, child and maternal physical and mental health, family factors (structure, size, language, stress, education), and neighborhood factors (amenities, support, physical condition, safety). According to adjusted regression models, minority children from lower income, non-English-speaking households with limited education, poorer maternal health and greater parenting stress were read to/told stories less than children without these characteristics, while neighborhood factors exerted less influence. In contrast, significant reductions in days/week of peer play were associated with unsupportive neighborhoods and those with the poorest physical conditions and limited amenities. Likewise, reductions in outings were associated with fewer neighborhood amenities. The findings of this study indicate that a variety of child, family, and neighborhood factors are associated with parent-initiated behaviors such as reading, storytelling, peer interactive play, and family outings. Appropriate evidence-based home visiting interventions targeting child health, parenting skills, early childhood education, and social services in at-risk communities would appear to be appropriate vehicles for addressing such parent-initiated play activities that have the potential to enhance development.     

Nutrition socialization experiences of children in the Head Start program

Some preschoolers may be at risk for overweight and obesity. To gain greater insight into children's early nutrition socialization experiences, the association of adult nutrition attitudes and mealtime behaviors to young children's eating behaviors and weight-for-height was investigated. Forty-six parent-child pairs and 8 Head Start teachers participated. Children were weighed and measured; parents completed measures of child eating behaviors, nutrition attitudes, and family mealtimes; teachers reported their own nutrition attitudes and were observed during mealtimes. Correlational findings indicated that parents' negative mealtime practices were associated with higher child weight-for-height and that parents' positive nutrition-attitudes were related to more pleasant family mealtimes, fewer negative mealtime practices, and less troublesome child eating behaviors. The Head Start mealtime environment was developmentally appropriate and predictable for children. Although teachers engaged in some nutrition teaching during meals, a number of opportunities were missed for promoting children's nutrition socialization. In sum, these results identified potential opportunities for improving children's early nutrition socialization experiences.     

Are Parental Perceptions of Child Activity Levels and Overall Health More Important than Perceptions of Weight?

Objectives To examine relationships between parental perceptions of child weight and overall health, reported lifestyle behaviors and measured body mass index (BMI). Methods Using community-partnered methods, we surveyed families residing in a two census tract area identified for targeted interventions to decrease diabetes related disparities. The survey included demographics, child dietary and physical activity behaviors, and parental perception of child’s health and weight. We measured child BMI using a standardized protocol. Results We surveyed parents of 116 children with a mean age of 7 years (range 3–15) with 51 % boys, 74 % Hispanic, and 26 % Black. Over half of the children (55 %) were overweight or obese. Half (50 %) of the parents underestimated their children’s weight. Reported daily hours of walking and/or running trended higher (3.6 vs. 2.6 h, p = 0.08) for children perceived to be of normal weight. Parents who correctly estimated their child’s weight status reported more hours of daily walking/running than parents who underestimated child weight status, 4.5 versus 2.4 h, p = 0.0002. Parents of healthy weight children were more likely to report that children were in excellent or very good health compared to parents of overweight/obese children, 75 versus 56 % respectively (p = 0.04). We found significant racial/ethnic differences in reported diet and physical activity behaviors and perception of overall health. Conclusions for Practice Parental perceptions of child health and physical activity level may be related to perceptions of their child’s weight status. Study findings informed community-based initiatives for reducing diabetes risk among children.     

Preferred Child Body Size and Parental Underestimation of Child Weight in Mexican-American Families

Objective To determine whether parents who prefer a heavier child would underestimate their child’s weight more than those who prefer a leaner child. Methods Participants were Mexican-American families (312 mothers, 173 fathers, and 312 children ages 8–10) who were interviewed and had height and weight measurements. Parents reported their preferred child body size and their perceptions of their child’s weight. Parents’ underestimation of their child’s weight was calculated as the standardized difference between parent’s perception of their child’s weight and the child’s body mass index (BMI) z-score. Demographic factors and parental BMI were also assessed. Results Although 50 % of children were overweight or obese, only 11 % of mothers and 10 % of fathers perceived their children as being somewhat or very overweight. Multiple regressions controlling for covariates (parental BMI and child age) showed that parents who preferred a heavier child body size underestimated their children’s weight more, compared to those who preferred a leaner child (β for mothers = .13, p < .03; β for fathers = .17, p < .03). Conclusions for Practice Parents who preferred a heavier child body size underestimated their child’s weight to a greater degree than parents who preferred a leaner child. Attempts by pediatricians to correct parents’ misperceptions about child weight may damage rapport and ultimately fail if the misperception is actually a reflection of parents’ preferences, which may not be readily amenable to change. Future research should address optimal methods of communication about child overweight which take into account parent preferences.     

Playmate Preferences and Perceptions of Individual Differences Among Typically Developing Preschoolers

The purpose of this study was to describe preschoolers' playmate preferences and perceptions of classmates with and without disabilities using a peer rating task and a corresponding teacher rating scale. Participants consisted of 34 typically developing preschoolers ranging in age from 42 to 69 months and 5 classroom teachers. Although preschoolers with disabilities received lower sociometric ratings than their typically developing peers, the reasons children cited for selecting or rejecting their peers with disabilities were essentially the same as those given for nondisabled children. In dyads In which one child had disabilities and the other did not, teachers reported that approximately 50% preferred not to play with each other, whereas reciprocal nonpreference was reported to occur in only 21 % of dyads in which both partners were typically developing. The proportions of mutual playmate preferences in the two types of dyads were roughly equivalent, suggesting that children with disabilities are capable of forming mutual friendships, but may be at increased risk for developing negative peer relationships.     

On the relevance of parents and TV as socializers of 6–19 year-olds’ expressions of emotion: representative data from Germany

This study examines joint influences of parental socialization and socialization via mass media on children’s expression of emotions. The effect of parental approval of their child’s expression of emotions, on the child’s approval of TV characters expressing the emotion, and the influence of both on the child’s expression of emotions within the past seven days is tested for the emotions fear, sadness, anger, and happiness with a representative survey of children (N = 1458) aged 6–19 in Germany. Moderating age and gender effects were also considered. Consistent across the four emotions, results showed that socialization of emotions via mass media is driven by internalized parental socialization but has a comparably strong effect of its own on the child’s expression of emotion that adds to the variance explained, especially with regard to anger and happiness. Implications for the conceptualization of parental emotion socialization and emotional socialization via media are discussed.     

Mutual exposure or close peer relationships do not seem to foster increased similarity in food, music or television program preferences

We know very little about either the mechanisms through which preferences are created in humans, or the contributions of particular developmental forces: e.g. genetics, parental influence, peer influence, the media. Prior work has indicated surprisingly low correlations (averaging about 0.15) between the food or music preferences of young adult and the mid-point of the biological and rearing parents preferences for the same items. A likely candidate for a substantial influence is peers. In one study, we show that freshman college roommates, randomly assigned, do not become significantly more similar in their food or music preferences over the course of about seven months of mutual exposure. In a second study, we show that in three suburban third grade classrooms, the preferences for food or TV programs in children is not more similar to those of their best friends in the school, than it is to randomly selected other children of the same gender, in their classes. Although our findings are negative (lack of influence), in light of very strong expectations for positive findings, we take them to be notable. These findings add further mystery and puzzlement to the question of: where do preferences come from? The focus in this study is on individual differences among peers and forces that lead to preference similarity. The study does not speak to the influence of general peer norms.     

Immigrant Caregivers of Young Children: Oral Health Beliefs,Attitudes, and Early Childhood Caries Knowledge

The incidence of early childhood caries (ECC) is a global public health concern. The oral health knowledge of a caregiver can affect a child’s risk for developing ECC. An exploratory study of the oral health knowledge and behaviors among caregivers of children 6 years of age and younger was conducted with a convenience sample of adults (n = 114) enrolled in English language or high school equivalency examination courses. The majority of study participants were born in Asia (47 %). Other birth regions included South America (16 %), Caribbean (16 %), Africa (10 %), and Central America (6 %). Study findings showed caregivers with low oral health knowledge were more likely to engage in behaviors that increase a child’s risk for developing ECC. A statistically significant relationship was found between participants’ rating of their child’s dental health as poor and the belief that children should not be weaned from the nursing bottle by 12 months of age (P = 0.002), brushing should not begin upon tooth eruption (P = 0.01), and fluoride does not strengthen teeth and prevent dental caries (P = 0.005). Subjects who pre-chewed their child’s food also exhibited behaviors including sharing eating utensils or a toothbrush with their child (P < 0.001). Additional caregiver behaviors included providing their child with a bottle containing cariogenic liquids in a crib (P < 0.001). As a result of this research, it is pertinent that culturally sensitive oral health promotion programs are developed and implemented to raise awareness and reduce the risk of dental disease among immigrant populations.