Comparative effectiveness of two outreach strategies for cervical cancer screening

ObjectiveTest-specific reminder letters can improve cancer screening adherence. Little is known about the effectiveness of a reminder system that targets the whole person by including multiple screening recommendations per letter.MethodsWe compared the effectiveness of a Pap-specific reminder letter sent 27 months after a woman's last Pap, to a reminder letter that included up to seven preventive service recommendations sent before a woman's birthday (“birthday letter”) on Pap smear adherence from a natural experiment occurring in routine clinical care. Participants included 82,016 women from Washington State who received 72,615 Pap-specific letters between 2003 and 2007 and 100,218 birthday letters between 2009 and 2012. We defined adherence as having a Pap test within a six month window around the Pap test due date. Using logistic regression, we calculated adjusted odds ratios (OR) for adherence with 95% confidence intervals (CI) following the birthday letter with 1–2 recommendations, 3–5 recommendations, and 6–7 recommendations compared to the Pap-specific letter. All analyses were stratified by whether a woman was up-to-date or overdue for screening at the time she received a letter.ResultsAdjusted ORs showed reduced adherence following the birthday letter compared with the Pap-specific letter for up-to-date women whether the letter had 1–2 recommendations (OR = 0.37, 95%CI = 0.36–0.39), 3–5 recommendations (OR = 0.44, 95%CI = 0.42–0.45), or 6–7 recommendations (OR = 0.36, 95%CI = 0.32–0.40). We noted no difference in Pap-test adherence between letter types for overdue women.ConclusionsIn conclusion, for women regularly adherent to screening, an annual birthday letter containing reminders for multiple preventive services was less effective at promoting cervical cancer screening compared with a Pap-specific letter.     

Cost-effectiveness analysis of two strategies for mass screening for colorectal cancer in France

The implementation of colorectal cancer mass screening is a high public health priority in France, as in most other industrialised countries. Despite evidences that screening using guaiac fecal occult blood test may reduce colorectal cancer mortality, no European country has organised widespread mass screening with this test. The low sensitivity of this test constitutes its main limitation. Immunological tests, which provide higher sensitivity than the guaiac test, may constitute a satisfactory alternative. This study was carried out to compare the costs and the effectiveness of 20 years of biennial colorectal cancer (CRC) screening with an automated reading immunological test (Magstream) with those obtained with a guaiac stool test (Haemoccult). The model used to estimate the costs and effectiveness of successive biennial CRC screening campaigns was a transitional probabilistic model. The parameters used in this model concerning costs and CRC epidemiological data were calculated from results obtained in the screening program run in Calvados or from published results of foreign studies because of the lack of French studies. The use of Magstream for 20 years of biennial screening costs 59 euros more than Haemoccult per target individual, and should lead to a mean increase in individual life expectancy of 0.0198 years (i.e. about one week), which corresponds to an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 2980 euros per years of life saved. Our results suggest that using an immunological test could increase the effectiveness of CRC screening at a reasonable cost for society.     

A comparison of two methods for eliciting contingent valuations of colorectal cancer screening

Willingness-to-pay (WTP) is being used increasingly in health technology assessment, although a number of methodological issues remain unresolved. Using data obtained from a randomised questionnaire survey, we investigated the metrical properties of two WTP formats, the open-ended question versus the payment scale, in the context of screening for colorectal cancer. Approximately, 2800 responses were analysed. Household income, attitudes toward health promotion and personal risk perceptions were the principal determinants of the nature and value of response. In comparison with the open-ended format, the payment scale achieved a higher completion rate and generated higher valuations. We believe that a framing effect is the most plausible explanation for these differences in performance. In contrast to previous findings, we do not find subjects' perceptions of the resource cost of interventions to be a convincing explanation for either their WTP values or inconsistencies between values and preferences. Although a proportion of respondents protested at the notion of valuation, the majority offer positive valuations, although typically of a lower value that non-protesters.     

Economic aspects of cervical cancer screening

The results of a cost-effectiveness analysis of cervical cancer screening in The Netherlands are reported, emphasizing the analysis of the costs of screening and consequent diagnosis and treatment. Many organized screening policies are evaluated, differing in age-range and interval between screens. The cost estimates are based on organization charts, file studies and tariffs. The costs of screening itself are by far the most important cost component. Screening increases the costs of diagnosis. Costs for primary treatment only rise for large screening policies. Screening causes savings in costs of terminal treatment, but these are small compared with the costs of screening. The costs per life-year gained for the most efficient policies amount to DFL 24,000 for the policy with 7 invitations per woman in a lifetime and rise considerably in case of more than 10 invitations. Cervical cancer screening appears to be less cost-effective than breast cancer screening, but compared with other services the results are comparatively good. Implementing one of the efficient organized screening policies and discouraging spontaneous screening beyond that schedule leads to considerable savings. Moreover, many organized policies which are not efficient are still superior to spontaneous screening.     

Cost-effective screening strategies for colorectal cancer.

This paper models a range of feasible strategies for mass population screening for colorectal cancer. It uses both clinical and economic data derived from the major colorectal cancer screening trial currently under way in Nottingham, supplemented by data from concurrent Scandinavian trials. Costs and yields for 12 strategies are modelled, and optima are identified according to a number of evaluation criteria. The cost-effectiveness condition for the desirability of introducing a programme of colorectal screening is also established.     

Infant hearing screening: a comparison of two techniques

Hearing screening programs for Australian children are known to have poor coverage in many areas. In addition, only a minority of children are screened for hearing loss before 2 years of age. However, early detection of hearing loss and early treatment are generally considered very important to successful rehabilitation outcomes. Traditional methods of screening infants have limitations with their accuracy in detecting children with hearing loss. This study compared the results obtained with a traditional questionnaire approach to screening and a newer objective technique involving otoacoustic emission measures. Poor correlation was found between pass rates for the two techniques, suggesting that the questionnaire approach is not an accurate screening method for detecting infant hearing loss. With further development, otoacoustic emission testing holds promise as an objective alternative hearing screening procedure.     

Cost effectiveness of cervical cancer screening strategies in Tunisia

Cervical cancer is a public health problem in developing countries and is the first cancer among women in several of these countries. Screening using the Pap test is the principle control strategy for this cancer. The aim of this study is to identify the highest cost-effectiveness strategy of Pap test screening, according to age group (20-64 years, 35-64 years and 40-64 years) and the frequency of this test (every 3 years or every 5 years). Number of cases avoid by screening and mean cost to prevent one case were used to compare these screening strategies. The principles results showed that the number of cervical cancer cases avoid increase with the coverage level of the screening and age group size, and decrease with the frequency of the Pap tests. The screening strategy interesting age group "40-64 years" every 5 years observed the highest cost-effectiveness ratio (19 MD); however cost is 23 MD for age grovy 35-64 years. These results lead to choice a frequency of Pap tests every 5 years. However, for determination of age group, other factors, as psycho-social ones, should be taken into account besides economic criterias.     

Determination of cost-effective strategies in colorectal cancer screening]

The object of the article is to implement particular methodologies in order to determine which strategies are cost-effective in the mass screening of colorectal cancer after a positive Hemoccult test. The first approach to be presented consists in proposing a method which enables all the admissible diagnostic strategies to be determined. The second approach enables a minimal cost function to be estimated using an adaptation of "Data Envelopment Analysis". This method proves to be particularly successful in cost-efficiency analysis, when the performance indicators are numerous and hard to aggregate. The results show that there are two cost-effective strategies after a positive Hemoccult test: coloscopy and sigmoidoscopy; they put into question the relevance of double contrast barium enema in the diagnosis of colo-rectal lesions.     

A comparison of two visual inspection methods for cervical cancer screening among HIV-infected women in Kenya

Objective

To determine the optimal strategy for cervical cancer screening in women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection by comparing two strategies: visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) and VIA followed immediately by visual inspection with Lugol’s iodine (VIA/VILI) in women with a positive VIA result.

Methods

Data from a cervical cancer screening programme embedded in two HIV clinic sites in western Kenya were evaluated. Women at a central site underwent VIA, while women at a peripheral site underwent VIA/VILI. All women positive for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or worse (CIN 2+) on VIA and/or VILI had a confirmatory colposcopy, with a biopsy if necessary. Overall test positivity, positive predictive value (PPV) and the CIN 2+ detection rate were calculated for the two screening methods, with biopsy being the gold standard.

Findings

Between October 2007 and October 2010, 2338 women were screened with VIA and 1124 with VIA/VILI. In the VIA group, 26.4% of the women tested positive for CIN 2+; in the VIA/VILI group, 21.7% tested positive (P < 0.01). Histologically confirmed CIN 2+ was detected in 8.9% and 7.8% (P = 0.27) of women in the VIA and VIA/VILI groups, respectively. The PPV of VIA for biopsy-confirmed CIN 2+ in a single round of screening was 35.2%, compared with 38.2% for VIA/VILI (P = 0.41).

Conclusion

The absence of any differences between VIA and VIA/VILI in detection rates or PPV for CIN 2+ suggests that VIA, an easy testing procedure, can be used alone as a cervical cancer screening strategy in low-income settings.     

Using simulation-optimization to construct screening strategies for cervical cancer

Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide. Cervical screening is critical for preventing this type of cancer. Traditionally, screening strategies are evaluated from an economic point of view through cost-effectiveness analysis. However, cost-effectiveness analysis is typically performed on a limited number of de facto or predetermined screening policies. We develop a simulation-optimization model to determine the ages at which screening should be performed, resulting in dynamic, age-based screening policies. We consider three performance measures: cervical cancer incidence, the number of cervical cancer deaths, and the number of life years lost due to cervical cancer death. Using each performance measure, we compare our optimal, dynamic screening strategies to standard policies considered in the health screening literature that are static and predetermined. We also evaluate the anticipated impact of vaccinations for preventing cervical cancer. The strategies that are developed are compared to those used in practice or considered in the literature. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends one screening every 3 years, resulting in 14 scheduled lifetime screenings. Our dynamic screening strategies provide approximately the same health benefits as this but with four to six fewer scheduled screenings, depending on the performance measure considered. Our dynamic strategies also provide approximately the same health benefits as screening every 2 years, but with six to nine fewer scheduled screenings. The results suggest that dynamic, age-based cervical cancer screening policies offer substantial economic savings in order to offer the same health benefits as equally spaced screening strategies.     

Opportunities for oral cancer screening among older African-American women

BACKGROUND: Older persons with smoking histories are important targets for oral cancer screening. Although older persons in low-income communities often lack regular dental care, little is known about the characteristics of groups at greatest risk for poor screening. METHODS: Survey data from 576 African-American women aged 45-93 were used to identify predictors of smoking and recency and type of dental care. RESULTS: Fifty-nine percent of respondents were current or former smokers, and 62% reported dental care within the past 3 years. Among smokers, no recent dental care was associated with older age, worse health, not working, no regular medical provider, and no recent mammography. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that episodic visits to non dentist providers offer opportunities for oral screening in high-risk populations.     

三种宫颈癌联合筛查方案的对比研究

目的:研究三种宫颈癌联合筛查方案的临床价值。方法:选择江西省人民医院妇科健康体检3 280例妇女,随机分为三组:A组(1 100例)行TCT联合HPV-DNA分型检测(PCR-反向点杂交法);B组(1 080例)行巴氏涂片法联合HPV-DNA检测(PCR荧光定性);C组(1 100例)行醋酸染色(VIA)、碘液染色(VILI)肉眼观察。比较三种联合方案对宫颈病变筛查的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值。结果:三组筛查方案的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值分别为:A组:78.9%、98.3%、42.9%、99.6%;B组:25.0%、98%、33.3%、98.5%;C组:73.7%、91.1%、12.7%、99.5%。三组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:TCT联合HPV-DNA分型检测筛查方案诊断价值优于其余两种方案,可作为宫颈癌筛查的最佳方案,适用于经济发达地区;巴氏涂片法联合HPV-DNA检测诊断准确性高,适用于一般地区;肉眼观察,简单易行,价格低廉,可在经济欠发达地区农村基层推广应用。     

Review of screening and preventive strategies for cervical cancer in India

Cervical cancer is the commonest cancer among Indian women. The predominant risk factor is persistent infection with human papilloma virus (HPV) which is now well established. Despite being the commonest cancer, and the fact that it is a type of cancer, which can be detected early by sensitive screening methods there is no effective screening programme or preventive strategy for reducing its burden. This article reviewed the published studies that has been carried out in India during 1965-2005 on cervical cancer with emphasis on screening by Pap smear and other alternative methods. Conventionally, Pap smear cytology is the only method for screening; but recently various studies have been carried out to explore alternative methods like visual inspection methods. Due to the operational difficulties by Pap smear, these alternative screening methods could be more feasible for organized population based screening in a low resource country. There is therefore a need for initiating screening programmes within the existing health system in India.     

宫颈癌、乳腺癌免费筛查IEC策略效果评价

目的 评价"宫颈癌、乳腺癌筛查信息交流与传播"综合策略效果,为全国开展"两癌"筛查工作提供参考.方法 采用前后对照的评价方法 ,分别在城区、近郊、远郊各选取一个2009年开展 "两癌信息交流与传播"策略的区县,采用横断面调查的方法 ,在2008年未开展和2009年开展"两癌信息交流与传播"策略工作后,进行群众和医务人员宫颈癌、乳腺癌知识问卷调查.结果 "信息交流与传播"策略开展后,非医务人员宫颈癌、乳腺癌防治知识得分(70.63±27.67和76.92±22.37)显著提高,医务人员乳腺癌防治知识得分(88.28±14.52)显著提高,前后比较差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 "信息交流与传播"策略已经广泛应用在生殖健康领域,有效提高了目标人群的认知,取得显著效果.     

Economic evaluation of a mammography-based breast cancer screening programme in Spain

The aim of the study was to perform a cost-effectiveness analysisof a breast cancer (BC) mammography screening programme, comparedto a do-nothing alternative, In Spain. Screening consisted ofa biennial mammography performed on all women 50–65 yearsold. A marginal analysis including women 45–49 years oldwas also performed. With the aid of a decision tree model, thenumbers of BC cases diagnosed through screening, BC cases missedby screening and false-positive BC cases were calculated. Costswere calculated by feeding local data into Markovian modelsand the cost-effectiveness ratio calculation was performed ina computer spread sheet. A sensitivity analysis was also conducted.Results were presented in ECUs of 1993. The cost-effectivenessratio per avoided death is 115,500 ECUs and per saved life year7,300 ECUs. Including women 45–49 years old in the programmeraises this ratio to 229,000 and 9,400 ECUs respectively. Thesensitivity analysis showed the efficacy of mammography, complianceof the programme and screening costs to be the more sensitivevariables.