Interventional endoscopic ultrasound and advanced endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography access techniques

Advanced endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) ductal access techniques require a higher level of skill compared to standard ERCP access maneuvers. These techniques are used in cases of standard ERCP access failures and include dual-wire techniques and precut papillotomy. Interventional endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) procedures requiring a higher level of technical skill as compared to more basic EUS procedures (eg, diagnostic EUS and EUS-fine needle aspiration) include EUS-guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections, EUS-guided pancreaticobiliary ductal access and drainage, and EUS-guided vascular interventions. In this article, we review techniques and outcomes of advanced ERCP access techniques and of interventional EUS procedures. Issues related to training in these techniques, assessing competency in these procedures, and incorporating these highly complex and higher-risk procedures into endoscopic practice are also discussed.     

The substitution of endoscopic ultrasonography for endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography: implications for service development and training

Diagnostic indications of endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) have not completely disappeared. But the substitution of this examination by endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) in the work-up of biliary and pancreatic diseases is supported by EUS's reliability and cost-effectiveness. In the future EUS will be challenged by magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), when easily available. Therefore, the choice between EUS, MRCP and ERCP will become simplified: MRCP as the first option for diagnosis, EUS in doubtful cases needing sampling for pathology and ERCP as a therapeutic alternative to some surgical procedures.     

Cost-effectiveness of endoscopic ultrasonography, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients suspected of pancreaticobiliary disease

BACKGROUND: It is not known whether initial endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is more cost effective than endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis of EUS, MRCP and ERCP was performed on 163 patients. The effectiveness of an investigation was defined as the percentage of patients with no need for further evaluation after the investigation in question had been performed. Costs were assumed from the budget-holder's point of view. RESULTS: MRCP, EUS and ERCP had a total accuracy of 0.91, 0.93 and 0.92, respectively. Eighty-four (52%) patients needed endoscopic therapy in combination with ERCP, giving an effectiveness of MRCP, EUS, and ERCP of 0.44, 0.45 and 0.92, respectively. The cost-effectiveness of MRCP, EUS, and ERCP was 6622, 7353 and 4246 Danish Kroner (DKK) per fully investigated and treated patient (1 DKK=0.14 EUR). CONCLUSION: Within a patient population with a probability of therapeutic ERCP in 50% of the patients, ERCP was the most cost-effective strategy.     

Safety of same-day endoscopic ultrasound and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography under conscious sedation

AIM: To assess the tolerability and safety of same-day tandem procedures, endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) followed by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) under conscious sedation. METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted at Loma Linda University Medical Center, a tertiary-care center. All 54 patients who underwent EUS followed by ERCP (group A) from 2004 to 2006 were included in the study. A second group of 56 patients who underwent EUS only (group B), and a third group of 53 patients who...     

Comparison of early endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the management of acute biliary pancreatitis: a prospective randomized study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The role and potential benefits of endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) in the management of acute biliary pancreatitis have not been documented. We report a large prospective randomized study comparing early EUS and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in the management of these patients. METHODS: A prospective randomized study was performed on 140 patients with acute pancreatitis suspected to have a biliary cause. The patients were randomized to have EUS (n = 70) or ERCP (n = 70) within 24 hours from admission. In the EUS group, when EUS detected choledocholithiasis, therapeutic ERCP was performed during the same endoscopy session. In the ERCP group, diagnostic ERCP was performed, followed by therapeutic endoscopy when choledocholithiasis was detected. RESULTS: Examination of the biliary tree by EUS was successful in all patients in the EUS group, whereas cannulation of the common duct during ERCP was unsuccessful in 10 patients (14%) in the ERCP group (P = .001). Combined percutaneous ultrasonography and ERCP missed detection of cholelithiasis in 6 patients in the ERCP group. The overall morbidity rate was 7% in the EUS group, and that in the ERCP group was 14% (P = .172). The hospital stay and mortality rates were comparable in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: In selected patients with acute biliary pancreatitis, EUS could safely replace diagnostic ERCP in the management for selecting patients with choledocholithiasis for therapeutic ERCP with a higher successful examination rate, a higher sensitivity in the detection of cholelithiasis, and a comparable morbidity rate.     

超声内镜对胆胰疾病诊断价值的探讨

目的 探讨超声内镜（EUS）对胆胰疾病的诊断价值。方法 采用超声胃镜（频率为7．5MHz和20Mnz），应用水囊法结合水充盈法，对54例临床疑为胆胰病变的患者进行EUS检查，并与腹部B超、CT及ERCP比较。结果 EUS、US、CT、ERCP对胆胰疾病诊断的阳性率分别为92．6％（50/54）、57．4％（31／54）、64．8％（35／54）及76．2％（32／42）。EUS对胰腺癌诊断的阳性率达100％。高于腹部B超、CT及ERCP；EUS对胆总管结石及慢性胰腺炎的准确率分别为100％和88．9％。结论 EUS对胆胰疾病的诊断率高于腹部B超，CT及ERCP影像检查，尤其对胆管扩张病因的定位及定性诊断均有较大的诊断价值。     

EUS with EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration as the first endoscopic test for the evaluation of obstructive jaundice

BACKGROUND: This study assesses the cost savings associated with using endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) before endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for evaluating patients with suspected obstructive jaundice. METHODS: One hundred forty-seven patients with obstructive jaundice of unknown or possibly neoplastic origin had EUS as their first endoscopic procedure. With knowledge of the final diagnosis and actual management for each patient, their probable evaluation and outcomes and their additional costs were reassessed assuming that ERCP would have been performed as the first endoscopic procedure. Also calculated were the additional costs incurred if EUS were unavailable for use after ERCP and had to be replaced by computed tomography or other procedures. RESULTS: The final diagnoses in these patients included malignancies (65%), choledocholithiasis or cholecystitis (18%), "medical jaundice" (11%), and miscellaneous benign conditions (6%). Fifty-four percent had EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration but only 53% required ERCP after EUS. An EUS-first approach saved an estimated $1007 to $1313/patient, but the cost was $2200 more if EUS was unavailable for use after ERCP. Significant savings persisted through sensitivity analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Performing EUS with EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration as the first endoscopic procedure in patients suspected to have obstructive jaundice can obviate the need for about 50% of ERCPs, helps direct subsequent therapeutic ERCP, and can substantially reduce costs in these patients.     

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic ultrasound for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis

The diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis is based on altered pancreatic morphology and function. A spectrum of disease exists, and milder forms of disease may be missed by CT but demonstrated by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS). The accuracy of ERCP and EUS for diagnosis of “minimal change” or “early” chronic pancreatitis is controversial, particularly when the results from these imaging procedures are discordant with each other or with tests of pancreatic function; in some cases ERCP and EUS should be considered indeterminate for diagnosis. This review discusses recent data concerning the accuracy of ERCP and EUS for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis, the use of EUS fine-needle aspiration for differential diagnosis of pancreatic masses, and the use of EUS and EUS-guided TruCut biopsy for diagnosis of autoimmune pancreatitis.     

超声胃镜在特发性胰腺炎病因诊断中的价值

目的评价超声内镜（EUS）对特发性胰腺炎（IP）病因诊断的价值。方法采用超声胃镜水囊法结合水充盈法,对30例临床诊断为IP的患者进行EUS检查,同时与ERCP、MRCP等影像学结果比较。结果 30例IP病因诊断阳性率依次为：EUS66.6%（18/27）,ERCP75.0%（21/28）,MRCP26.9%（7/26）。EUS与ERCP诊断符合率接近,差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;EUS对胆管微小结石,胰腺导管内乳头状黏液瘤（IPMNs）的诊断阳性率最高;而ERCP对胰腺分裂症、胆总管囊肿、肝吸虫感染及乳头括约肌功能不全（SOD）诊断价值最高。结论 EUS可作为IP病因诊断的首选筛查手段,联合EUS与ERCP、MRCP对特发性胰腺炎的病因诊断具有较高的价值。     

The role of endoscopic ultrasound in biliary strictures

The role of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in the diagnosis of biliary strictures is well established, and emerging evidence suggests it may also play a therapeutic role. Differentiating between benign and malignant causes of biliary strictures can be challenging, but EUS can aid in their diagnosis and may predict resectability. The diagnostic yield of EUS combined with fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is excellent, especially in distal bile duct strictures, and far surpasses endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with brushings. Intraductal ultrasound may add to the diagnostic sensitivity of ERCP with brushings when no mass is seen on cross-sectional imaging or EUS, or when EUS with FNA is negative and suspicion of cancer persists. EUS-guided cholangiography is an emerging technique that may aid biliary decompression when ERCP has failed or is not possible; however, new therapeutic echoendoscopes or accessories are needed before the use of this technique can become more widespread.     

The accuracy of endoscopic ultrasound, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, computed tomography, and transabdominal ultrasound in the detection and staging of primary ampullary tumors

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To compare the accuracy between EUS (endoscopic ultrasound), ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography), CT (computed tomography), and transabdominal US (ultrasound) in the detection and staging of primary ampullary tumors. We will also try to discuss the influence of endobiliary stent on EUS in staging ampullary tumors. METHODOLOGY: Twenty-one patients with ampullary tumors were evaluated by EUS, ERCP, CT, and US before operation. The accuracy was assessed with TNM staging and compared with the surgical-pathological findings. RESULTS: EUS was superior to CT and US in detecting ampullary tumors, but EUS and ERCP are of similar sensitivity (EUS 95%, ERCP 95%, CT 19%, US 5%). EUS was superior to CT and US in T staging (EUS 75%, CT 5%, US 0%) and detecting lymph node metastasis (EUS 50%, CT 33%, US 0%) of ampullary tumors. The accuracy of EUS in T and N staging of ampullary tumors tended to be decreased in the presence of endobiliary stent (stenting: T 71%, N 75%; nonstenting T 83%, N 100%), but there was no statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: EUS was superior to CT and US in assessing primary ampullary tumors, but it was not significantly superior to ERCP in detecting ampullary tumors. The presence of endobiliary stent may decrease the accuracy of EUS in staging ampullary tumors.     

The clinical impact and cost implication of endoscopic ultrasound on use of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in a Canadian university hospital.

BACKGROUND: Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is a safe alternative to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for diagnostic biliary imaging in choledocholithiasis. Evidence linking a decline in diagnostic ERCP with the introduction of EUS in clinical practice is limited. OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical impact and cost implications of a new EUS program on diagnostic ERCP at a tertiary referral centre. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of data collected during the first year of EUS at the University of Alberta Hospital (Edmonton, Alberta). Patients were referred for ERCP because of suspicion of choledocholithiasis based on clinical, biochemical and/or radiological parameters. If they were assessed to have an intermediate probability of choledocholithiasis, EUS was performed first. ERCP was performed if EUS suggested choledocholithiasis, whereas patients were clinically followed for six months if their EUS was normal. Cost data were assessed from a third-party payer perspective, and cost savings were expressed in terms of ERCP procedures avoided. RESULTS: Over 12 months, 90 patients (63 female, mean age 58 years) underwent EUS for suspected biliary tract abnormalities. EUS suggested choledocholithiasis in 20 patients (22%), and this was confirmed by ERCP in 17 of the 20 patients. EUS was normal in 69 patients, and none underwent a subsequent ERCP during a six-month follow-up period. One patient had pancreatic cancer and did not undergo ERCP. The sensitivity and specificity of EUS for choledocholithiasis were 100% and 96%, respectively. A total of 440 ERCP procedures were performed over the same 12-month period, suggesting that EUS resulted in a 14% reduction in ERCP procedures (70 of 510). There were no complications of EUS. The cost of 90 EUS procedures was $42,840, compared with $108,854 for 70 ERCP procedures. The cost savings for the first year were $66,014. CONCLUSION: EUS appears to be accurate, safe and cost effective in diagnostic biliary imaging for suspected choledocholithiasis. The impact of EUS is the avoidance of ERCP in selected cases, thereby preventing the risk of complications. Diagnostic ERCP should not be performed in centres and regions with physicians trained in EUS.     

内镜超声和经内镜逆行胰胆管造影在慢性胰腺炎诊断中的价值

目的 评价EUS和ERCP对慢性胰腺炎(CP)的诊断灵敏度和特异度,探讨在CP诊断中EUS和ERCP的价值.方法 采用多中心联合调查方法,回顾分析1994年5月至2004年5月全国22个分研究中心的确诊的CP病例,以组织学诊断为"金标准",采用接受者工作曲线(receiver operating characteristic,ROC)分析EUS和ERCP的诊断灵敏度和特异度.结果 共人选CP患者1994例,男1298例,女696例.年龄5～85(48.9 ±15.0)岁.所有CP患者中,有组织学诊断239例(11.98%);胰腺外分泌功能试验(BT-PABA)261例(13.09%),腹部平片416例(20.86%),腹部B超1424例(71.41%),CT 889例(44.58%),MRI和MRCP245例(12.29%),ERCP628例(31.49%),EUS258例(12.94%).各诊断方法的诊断灵敏度和特异度分别为EUS(88%和93%)、ERCP(87%和93%)、MRI和MRCP(66%和85%)、CT(61%和85%)、B超(69%和82%)、腹部平片(32%和80%)、BT-PABA(83%和80%).结论 在CP诊断方法中,EUS和ERCP对CP且具有较高的灵敏度和特异度,EUS较ERCP灵敏度和特异度更高.     

The substitution of endoscopic ultrasound for endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography: implications for service development and training

OBJECTIVES: Choledocholithiasis and other benign conditions of the biliary tree are difficult to define clinically. Endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) is increasingly being replaced as the investigation of choice by other imaging modalities. The aim of this study was to measure the impact of substituting endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) for ERCP in terms of case throughput and the proportion of therapeutic ERCPs performed. METHODS: Over a 12-month period, cases with a low/medium likelihood for biliary pathology were triaged to EUS rather than ERCP. Data were collected on the proportion of ERCPs performed with diagnostic or therapeutic intent and compared with data from the preceding 12-month period. RESULTS: In the 12 months to April 2001, 518 cases were referred for ERCP; 140 underwent EUS and 378 underwent ERCP. The proportions of diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP were 14% and 86%, respectively. Benign biliary disease represented 33% of all referrals for EUS, and calculi were identified in 6% of these cases. During the preceding year, 637 ERCPs were performed. The proportion of diagnostic (33%) and therapeutic (67%) cases differed from the index year (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The substitution of EUS for ERCP results in significant quantitative and qualitative change to ERCP practice, which has direct consequences for training and service development.     

A prospective study of complications of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic ultrasound in an ambulatory endoscopy center.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Our aim was to assess the safety of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in an ambulatory endoscopy center (AEC). METHODS: Complications occurring in consecutive patients undergoing ERCP or EUS from March 2003 to February 2004 at our AEC were recorded prospectively. Comprehensive complications were defined as consensus criteria plus other adverse events: use of reversal agents, unplanned hospital admission, hospitalization beyond planned 23-hour observation, unplanned emergency department or primary care provider visit, and 30-day mortality. RESULTS: A total of 497 patients (median age, 57 y; 82% American Society of Anesthesiologists class II or III) underwent 685 procedures. Monitored or general anesthesia was used in 25% of EUS and 50% of ERCP procedures. ERCP interventions were as follows: biliary or pancreatic stenting (N = 168), stone extraction (N = 70), sphincterotomy (N = 62), sphincter of Oddi manometry (N = 53), other (N = 66). EUS indications were as follows: known or suspected pancreatic mass (N = 103), upper-gastrointestinal mass/submucosal lesion (N = 71), luminal malignancy staging (N = 40), other (N = 96); 52% had EUS fine-needle aspiration. There was follow-up evaluation in 94% of the patients. There were 43 comprehensive ERCP complications (12.9%), 18 (5.4%) of these fit consensus criteria: pancreatitis (N = 14), cholangitis (N = 2), and perforation (N = 2). There were 9 comprehensive EUS complications (2.9%), 2 (.7%) of these fit consensus criteria: pancreatitis (N = 1) and bleeding (N = 1). Other adverse events for ERCP and EUS were as follows: prolongation of 23-hour observation (N = 14), emergency room visits (N = 3), primary care physician visits (N = 6), use of reversal agents (N = 3), unplanned admissions (N = 2), infection (N = 3), and death (N = 1). CONCLUSIONS: ERCP and EUS can be performed in an AEC, provided mechanisms for admission and anesthesia support are in place. The assessment of comprehensive complications is more reflective of adverse events related to ERCP and EUS than consensus criteria alone.     

超声内镜对胰管扩张性疾病的诊断价值

目的 探讨内镜超声检查术(EUS)在胰管扩张病因及恶性疾病邻近脏器浸润的诊断价值。方法 分析129例EUS检查发现胰管扩张的病因，并与同期接受CT检查(n＝40)与ERCP检查(n＝42)的结果相比较。对其中72例胰腺癌引起的胰管扩张病例，分析EUS对邻近脏器浸润检出率，并与CT、ERCP结果相比较。结果 129例胰管扩张病例中，胰腺癌、壶腹癌、慢性胰腺炎为常见病因。EUS对病因检出率较CT及ERCP高。EUS对胰腺癌邻近血管侵犯及淋巴结转移检出率较CT及ERCP高。结论 EUS对胰管扩张的病因诊断较CT及ERCP有明显的优越性，并能全面评估肿瘤的可切除性，指导制定治疗方案。     

Simultaneous endoscopic ultrasound fine needle aspiration and endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography： Evaluation of safety

AIM： To investigate the rate of complications of endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography （ERCP） performed immediately after endoscopic ultrasound fine needle aspiration （EUS-FNA） in a large series of patients.
METHODS： Patients with the following conditions were considered candidates for EUS-FNA and ERCP： diagnosis of locally advanced or metastatic pancreatic lesion not eligible for surgery, and patients with pancreatic lesion of unknown nature causing jaundice. Data were prospectively collected on the following parameters： indication for FNA, EUS findings, pathological diagnosis, procedure duration of EUS-FNA and combined EUS-FNA and ERCP, and immediate and late complications.
RESULTS： From January 2004 to October 2006, 72 patients were deemed eligible for combined EUS and ERCP. In 25/72 EUS-FNA was performed to obtain a pathology diagnosis of lesions causing biliary obstruction, and ERCP sequentially performed to drain the biliary system. No immediate complications occurred except for two mild bleeding episodes post sphincterotomy. No late complications were recorded except for one patient who experienced fever, promptly recovered with antibiotic therapy.
CONCLUSION： Simultaneous approach appears to be feasible and safe. When possible, this can be considered the reference standard to avoid double sedation and reduce duration of the procedure and hospital stay.     

内镜超声对胰腺癌的诊断

目的 探讨内镜超声（EUS）检查对胰腺癌的诊断价值。方法 对116例胰腺癌患者行EUS检查，其中16例经管内超声（IDUS）检查并与体表B超（B超），CT，磁共振成像（MRI），内镜逆行胰胆管造影（ERCP）检查结果进行比较。结果 EUS（IDUS)诊断胰腺癌的敏感性与准确性均明显高于B超，与CT，MRI及ERCP相当，EUS诊断准确率为98．2％（114／116），IDUS为100％（16／16）；CT为85．3％（99／116）；MRI为87．0％（54／62）；ERCP为80．6％（79／98）；B超为73．2％（85／116）。结论 EUS对胰腺癌有较大的诊断价值。     

内镜超声检查对胆总管扩张的诊断价值

目的评价内镜超声检查(EUS)对胆总管扩张的病因诊断价值。方法32例患者在EUS 前均做过体表B超检查。患者的病因诊断均在病理或手术(包括奥狄括约肌切开取石)后确定。结果(1)32例患者的B超及EUS对胆总管直径的测定结果分别为(1.04±0.41)cm和(0.97±0.36)cm,两者差异无显著性(P＞0.05)。(2)对胆总管扩张的病因诊断率EUS为29/32(90.6％),明显高于体表B超19/32(59.4％),P＜0.01;X线电子计算机断层扫描(CT)21/32(65.6％),P＜0.05。EUS与磁共振胆胰管成像(MRCP)13/16(81.3％)和内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)31/32(96.9％)诊断率 相似(P＞0.05)。结论EUS对胆总管扩张的病因有很高的诊断价值。     

The role of therapeutic endoscopic ultrasound now and for the future

Therapeutic endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) became possible after the advent of the linear echoendoscope and the EUS guided fine needle aspiration. Over the past two decades, the indications for therapeutic EUS have expanded and evidence regarding its utility has been steadily accumulating. Randomized studies have shown EUS to be effective for cancer pain relief (celiac plexus neurolysis), pancreatic fluid collection drainage, and biliary drainage. Prospective studies have shown EUS-guided biliary drainage to be safe and effective in patients with failed ERCP. There is evidence to suggest that EUS is effective for pancreatic duct drainage, gallbladder drainage, and drainage of pelvic collections. EUS may also be useful for targeted cancer treatment via brachytherapy, radiofrequency ablation, or injection therapy. Therapeutic EUS is likely to play an increasingly important role in endoscopic therapy of gastrointestinal diseases in the near future.