Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels in neonatal infections

In order to assess the potential of procalcitonin measurement in the management of neonatal sepsis, daily variations in serum procalcitonin (measured by an immunoluminometric assay) were evaluated in 94 control and infected newborn infants in comparison to C-reactive protein (measured by an immunonephelometric method). High levels of procalcitonin correlated with bacterial invasion and showed no discrepancies with C-reactive protein. Procalcitonin increased (up to 400 μg 1^-1) and returned to the normal range (< 0.1 g1^-1) more quickly than C-reactive protein, suggesting that procalcitonin may be an early marker of favourable outcome. Another finding is a significant procalcitonin peak on the first day of life in the control group, independent of any infectious stimulus. In conclusion, procalcitonin seems to be an interesting marker of neonatal sepsis but additional investigations are needed to understand better its mechanism of synthesis in order to determine its clinical usefulness.     

肝素结合蛋白对儿童重症感染诊断价值的前瞻性研究

目的 探讨肝素结合蛋白(heparin-binding protein,HBP)对儿童重症感染的诊断价值.方法 该研究系前瞻性观察研究.收集2019年1月到2020年1月因感染入住儿童重症监护室患儿的临床资料,按照严重脓毒症与脓毒症诊断标准分为严重脓毒症组(49例)、脓毒症组(82例)和非重症感染组(33例),比较3组...     

PROCALCITONIN AND C-REACTIVE PROTEIN SERUM LEVELS AS MARKERS OF INFECTION IN A PEDIATRIC POPULATION WITH FEBRILE NEUTROPENIA AND CANCER

Background: Procalcitonin and C-reactive-protein are inflammatory markers for sepsis. The authors evaluated their sensitivity and specificity in pediatric patients with cancer and febrile neutropenia. Procedure: Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive-protein were evaluated. Patients (n = 54) were divided into 2 groups, with severe infection (n = 18) or without documented infection (n = 36). Results: Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein were significantly higher in the high-risk group. Procalcitonin displayed 72.2% sensitivity and 80.5% specificity. C-reactive-protein had a sensitivity of 77.7% and specificity of 77.2%. Conclusions: Procalcitonin is an accurate predictor of bacterial infection in neutropenic children, while C-reactive-protein may be a better screening test in emergency settings.     

血前降钙素在小儿重症感染诊断中的作用

目的　评价血清前降钙素在重症感染诊断中的作用。方法　应用免疫荧光法对 30例重症感染患儿于入院时和入院后 4 8h进行血清前降钙素水平测定 ,并比较血清CRP、白细胞计数对感染疾病的实验室诊断价值。结果　 17例细菌感染患儿血清前降钙素水平明显升高 ,13例病毒感染患儿血前降钙素水平正常或仅有轻度升高。血清CRP在两组间有数据重叠。经有效抗生素治疗后 ,血清前降钙素水平的下降幅度明显大于血清的下降幅度 (P分别为 0 0 2 8和 0 196 )。结论　血前降钙素是鉴定细菌感染和病毒感染的重要指标 ,是判断细菌感染治疗效果的客观依据之一     

Diagnostic markers of infection: comparison of procalcitonin with C reactive protein and leucocyte count.

BACKGROUND: Procalcitonin has been advocated as a marker of bacterial infection. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate diagnostic markers of infection in critically ill children, comparing procalcitonin with C reactive protein and leucocyte count in a paediatric intensive care unit (PICU). METHODS: Procalcitonin, C reactive protein, and leucocyte count were measured in 175 children, median age 16 months, on admission to the PICU. Patients were classified as: non-infected controls (43); viral infection (14); localised bacterial infection without shock (25); bacterial meningitis/encephalitis (10); or septic shock (77). Six children with "presumed septic shock" (without sufficient evidence of infection) were analysed separately. Optimum sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were evaluated. RESULTS: Admission procalcitonin was significantly higher in children with septic shock (median 94.6; range 3.3-759.8 ng/ml), compared with localised bacterial infection (2.9; 0-24.3 ng/ml), viral infection (0.8; 0-4.4 ng/ml), and non-infected controls (0; 0-4.9 ng/ml). Children with bacterial meningitis had a median procalcitonin of 25.5 (7.2-118.4 ng/ml). Area under the ROC curve was 0.96 for procalcitonin, 0.83 for C reactive protein, and 0.51 for leucocyte count. Cut off concentrations for optimum prediction of septic shock were: procalcitonin > 20 ng/ml and C reactive protein > 50 mg/litre. A procalcitonin concentration > 2 ng/ml identified all patients with bacterial meningitis or septic shock. CONCLUSION: In critically ill children the admission procalcitonin concentration is a better diagnostic marker of infection than C reactive protein or leucocyte count. A procalcitonin concentration of 2 ng/ml might be useful in differentiating severe bacterial disease in infants and children.     

Diagnostic markers of infection: comparison of procalcitonin with C reactive protein and leucocyte count

BACKGROUND—Procalcitonin has been advocated as a marker of bacterial infection.
OBJECTIVE—To evaluate diagnostic markers of infection in critically ill children, comparing procalcitonin with C reactive protein and leucocyte count in a paediatric intensive care unit (PICU).
METHODS—Procalcitonin, C reactive protein, and leucocyte count were measured in 175 children, median age 16 months, on admission to the PICU. Patients were classified as: non-infected controls (43); viral infection (14); localised bacterial infection without shock (25); bacterial meningitis/encephalitis (10); or septic shock (77). Six children with "presumed septic shock" (without sufficient evidence of infection) were analysed separately. Optimum sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were evaluated.
RESULTS—Admission procalcitonin was significantly higher in children with septic shock (median 94.6; range 3.3-759.8 ng/ml), compared with localised bacterial infection (2.9; 0-24.3 ng/ml), viral infection (0.8; 0-4.4 ng/ml), and non-infected controls (0; 0-4.9 ng/ml). Children with bacterial meningitis had a median procalcitonin of 25.5 (7.2-118.4 ng/ml). Area under the ROC curve was 0.96 for procalcitonin, 0.83 for C reactive protein, and 0.51 for leucocyte count. Cut off concentrations for optimum prediction of septic shock were: procalcitonin > 20 ng/ml and C reactive protein > 50 mg/litre. A procalcitonin concentration > 2 ng/ml identified all patients with bacterial meningitis or septic shock.
CONCLUSION—In critically ill children the admission procalcitonin concentration is a better diagnostic marker of infection than C reactive protein or leucocyte count. A procalcitonin concentration of 2 ng/ml might be useful in differentiating severe bacterial disease in infants and children.

     

Comparison of procalcitonin with C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and interferon-alpha for differentiation of bacterial vs. viral infections.

BACKGROUND: Procalcitonin (PCT) concentration increases in bacterial infections but remains low in viral infections and inflammatory diseases. The change is rapid and the molecule is stable, making it a potentially useful marker for distinguishing between bacterial and viral infections. METHODS: PCT concentration was determined with an immunoluminometric assay on plasma collected at admission in 360 infants and children hospitalized for bacterial or viral infection. It was compared with C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 and interferon-alpha measured on the same sample. RESULTS: The mean PCT concentration was 46 microg/l (median, 17.8) in 46 children with septicemia or bacterial meningitis. PCT concentration was > 1 microg/l in 44 of 46 in this group and in 59 of 78 children with a localized bacterial infection who had a negative blood culture (sensitivity, 83%). PCT concentration was > 1 microg/l in 16 of 236 children with a viral infection (specificity, 93%). PCT concentration was low in 9 of 10 patients with inflammatory disease and fever. A CRP value > or =20 mg/l was observed in 61 of 236 patients (26%) with viral infection and in 105 of 124 patients (86%) with bacterial infection. IL-6 was > 100 pg/ml in 14% of patients infected with virus and in 53% with bacteria. A secretion of interferon-alpha was found in serum in 77% of viral infected patients and in 8.6% of bacterial infected patients. CONCLUSIONS: In this study a PCT value of 1 microg/l or greater had better specificity, sensitivity and predictive value than CRP, interleukin 6 and interferon-alpha in children for distinguishing between viral and bacterial infections. PCT values are higher in invasive bacterial infections, but the cutoff value of 1 microg/l indicates the severity of the disease in localized bacterial infection and helps to decide antibiotic treatment in emergency room. PCT may be useful in an emergency room for differentiation of bacterial vs. viral infections in children and for making decisions about antibiotic treatments.     

Serum procalcitonin concentration in children with liver disease

Serum procalcitonin was measured in 58 children with symptoms and signs of hepatic disease. According to mechanism responsible for liver injury, children were assigned to one of 4 categories: 1, invasive bacterial infection; 2, acute viral infection; 3, toxic liver injury; and 4, autoimmune disease. Procalcitonin concentrations exceeded normal values in all children with invasive bacterial infection. It was low in viral infection and toxic liver injury. Moderately elevated procalcitonin concentrations were present in 50% of children with an autoimmune process.     

C反应蛋白与小儿呼吸道感染关系的meta分析

目的 探讨C反应蛋白(CRP)与小儿细菌性和病毒性呼吸道感染的关系和意义.方法 采用meta分析方法对国内相关文献进行定量综合分析.结果 符合纳入标准的有13个研究.血清ClIP含量细菌感染组(A组)比病毒感染组(B组)高,95%CI:2.33～3.94,细菌感染组比对照组(C组)高,95%CI:2.44～3.60,而病毒感染组比对照组高,95%CI:0.40～0.96.结论 血清CRP含量的增高有助于临床对细菌感染的早期诊断,以减少抗生素的滥用.     

血清降钙素原判断儿童脓毒症病原学的作用

目的 了解细菌、病毒及支原体感染引起脓毒症血清降钙素原（procalcitonin,PCT）的水平,明确血清PCT判断引起儿童脓毒症常见病原的作用.方法 回顾性分析2011年2月1日至2012年9月1日入住湖南省儿童医院PICU确诊细菌、病毒、支原体感染引起脓毒症患儿330例,检测其入院时及治疗3d后的PCT水平,分析不同血清PCT水平下细菌、病毒及支原体感染引起的脓毒症的分布差异.分析细菌、病毒及支原体感染引起脓毒症的血清PCT水平在入院时与治疗3d时的差异.结果 细菌感染引起的脓毒症血清PCT水平明显升高,病毒及支原体感染引起的血清PCT水平升高不明显,分别为0.71 （8.14） ng/ml、0.15 （1.68） ng/ml、0.28 （1.89） ng/ml.按PCT水平分为0.05～ ng/ml、0.5～ ng/ml、2～ng/ml、10 ～ 300 ng/ml组,四组中细菌、病毒及支原体感染引起的脓毒症的分布不同,差异有统计学意义（x2=84.50,P＜0.01）.细菌感染引起的脓毒症抗炎治疗3d后,PCT水平较入院时明显下降[0.32（5.68） ng/ml vs 0.71 （8.14） ng/ml],差异有统计学意义（U=19.34,P＜0.05）.结论 PCT判断儿童脓毒症病原学有一定作用.PCT明显升高及抗炎治疗后PCT明显降低提示细菌感染可能性大,PCT升高不明显以病毒及支原体感染为主,不能完全排除细菌感染.     

Mixed bacterial and viral infections are common in children

Acute phase and convalescent sera from 51 pediatric patients who had a documented viral infection and no obvious culture-confirmed bacterial infection such as meningitis, otitis media or urinary tract infection were tested by enzyme immunoassay for antibodies to Haemophilus influenzae and Branhamella catarrhalis and by the latex agglutination test for pneumococcal antigens to evaluate the frequency of mixed bacterial and viral infections. A mixed bacterial and viral infection was documented in 19 patients (37%). Seven patients (14%) showed a diagnostic rise in antibodies to H. influenzae and 8 patients (16%) showed an antibody elevation to B. catarrhalis in their paired sera; pneumococcal antigen was detected in acute phase serum from 4 patients (8%). The rate of mixed infections in patients having respiratory symptoms was 52%. High serum C-reactive protein values and white blood cell counts were found significantly more often in those with mixed infections than in those who had viral infections. The results indicate that mixed bacterial and viral infections occur more frequently in children than one could anticipate on the basis of the earlier reports. Mixed bacterial and viral etiology is highly probable in a child who has a defined viral infection with high C-reactive protein and white blood cell count values, especially in the presence of respiratory symptoms.     

The role of procalcitonin as a predictor of nosocomial sepsis in preterm infants

AIM: To assess the role of procalcitonin in detecting nosocomial sepsis in preterm infants, after the onset of clinical symptoms. SUBJECTS: 100 preterm infants, 24-36 wk of gestation, were followed from the age of 3 d until discharge. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were measured within 3 d of sepsis workup events. RESULTS: 141 blood samples were drawn from 36 infants during 85 episodes of sepsis workup performed between 4 and 66 d of life. Of these episodes, 51 (60%) were not a result of documented sepsis and thereby served as the negative comparison group. Median procalcitonin levels were higher in the septic group compared with the non-septic group at the time of the sepsis workup (2.7 vs 0.5 ng/ml, p=0.003), at 1-24 h after the sepsis workup (4.6 vs 0.6 ng/ml, p=0.003), and at 25-48 h (6.9 vs 2.0 ng/ml, p=0.016). Using high cutoff levels, both procalcitonin (2.3 ng/ml) and CRP (30 mg/l) had high specificity and positive predictive value (97%, 91% and 96%, 87%, respectively) but low sensitivity (48% and 41%, respectively) to detect sepsis. Areas under the ROC curve for procalcitonin and CRP were 0.74 and 0.73, respectively. CONCLUSION: Procalcitonin >2.3 ng/ml or CRP >30 mg/l indicates a high likelihood for neonatal sepsis, and antibiotic therapy should be continued even in the presence of sterile cultures.     

Negative C-reactive protein in children with bacterial infection*

PURPOSE: To evaluate the practical value of initial C-reactive protein (CRP) in the diagnosis of bacterial infection in children. METHODS: The subjects comprised 11 children, six boys and five girls, aged 3 months through to 3 years (median age 16 months), whose initial CRP levels were < 1.0 mg/dL despite bacterial infection. C-reactive protein was quantitated at the first medical examination by nephelometry. RESULTS: The diagnosis was urinary tract infection (n = 4), bacterial meningitis (n = 2), sepsis (n = 2), pneumonia (n = 2) and arthritis of the hip joint (n = 1). The CRP levels were significantly elevated during the course of infection, ranging from 7.6 to 28.5 mg/dL. The bacterial etiology was non-specific. Eight patients were examined within 12 h of onset, three exhibited negative CRP values despite the duration of the insult over 12 h. Six patients were tentatively diagnosed as having a bacterial infection, but the other five were not. Each patient was treated, leading to a favorable outcome without any serious complications. CONCLUSIONS: Low levels of CRP do not rule out the possibility of bacterial infection in children. The initial value of CRP may be negative, even in patients with severe bacterial infection or even after 12 h from onset. The data suggest that pediatricians should consistently be aware of the possibility of bacterial infection even if the initial CRP test result is negative and that serial CRP measurements appear to be practical.     

Human neutrophil lipocalin (HNL) as a diagnostic tool in children with acute infections: a study of the kinetics

AIM: To study the changes in blood of human neutrophil lipocalin (HNL) and C-reactive protein (CRP) during the course of an acute infection in children. METHODS: Children (n=92) hospitalized with symptoms and signs of acute infections were included and categorized into five groups, i.e. bacterial infection, suspected bacterial infection, viral infection, suspected viral infection and others. Blood was taken at admittance and the following 3-4 d for the measurement of CRP and HNL. RESULTS: Both CRP and HNL were significantly raised at admittance in bacterial infection as compared to viral infection (p<0.001). After 25-48 h, 83% of the children with bacterial infections still had raised CRP levels in contrast to 11% having raised HNL levels. The levels of CRP, but not those of HNL, were significantly correlated to days of symptoms before admission. CONCLUSIONS: HNL is a promising diagnostic tool in the distinction of acute infections caused by bacteria or virus. The differences in the kinetics of CRP and HNL make HNL a better marker for monitoring antibacterial treatment, since HNL is probably elevated only when an active bacterial infection is at hand.     

Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein and leukocyte count in children with lower respiratory tract infection

BACKGROUND: Lower respiratory tract infection is the most common infection leading to unnecessary antibiotic treatment in children. Etiologic diagnosis is not immediately achieved, and the pathogen remains unidentified in a large number of cases. Neither clinical nor laboratory factors allow for a rapid distinction between bacterial and viral etiology. The aim of our study was to evaluate the reliability of procalcitonin (PCT), C-reactive protein (CRP) and leukocyte count in distinguishing pneumococcal, atypical and viral lower respiratory tract infection. METHODS: PCT, CRP and leukocyte count were measured in children with microbiologically documented diagnoses of lower respiratory tract infection. The results were compared of children with pneumococcal, atypical and viral etiologies. RESULTS: PCT and CRP showed significant correlation with a bacterial etiology of lower respiratory tract infection. No significance was found for leukocyte count. Using a cutoff point of 2 ng/ml for PCT and 65 mg/l for CRP, the sensitivities and specificities for distinguishing bacterial from viral lower respiratory tract infections were 68.6 and 79.4% for PCT and 79.1 and 67.1% for CRP. The sensitivities and specificities for distinguishing pneumococcal from other etiologies were 90.3 and 74.1% for PCT and 90.3 and 60% for CRP, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: High PCT and CRP values show a significant correlation with the bacterial etiology of lower respiratory tract infection. PCT and CRP show good sensitivity for distinguishing pneumococcal from other etiologies. PCT shows higher specificity than CRP. PCT and CRP can help make decisions about antibiotic therapy in children with lower respiratory tract infections.     

Inflammatory mediators for the diagnosis and treatment of sepsis in early infancy

Interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and procalcitonin (PCT) are important parameters in the diagnosis of sepsis and for differentiating between viral and bacterial infection in children. We compared the value of IL-6, IL-8, and PCT with C-reactive protein (CRP) in the diagnosis and treatment of late-onset sepsis among infants admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (group I) and febrile infants admitted to general hospitals from home (group II). Group I was divided into subgroups Ia, positive blood culture (all Gram-positive cocci); Ib, negative blood culture; and Ic, controls. Group II was divided into subgroups IIa, systemic enterovirus infection, and IIb, no enterovirus infection. Enterovirus was identified by real-time (RT) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or by culture in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The positive predictive values of IL-6, IL-8, and PCT (78%, 72%, and 83%, respectively) were better than that of CRP (63%) in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. After 48 h of antibiotic treatment, IL-6 and IL-8 levels significantly decreased and PCT stabilized in clinically recovered patients, suggesting that these markers may be useful in distinguishing patients in which antibiotic treatment may be discontinued. Among infants of subgroup IIa, 80%-90% had normal values of IL-6, IL-8, and PCT, whereas CRP was increased in 40%. In conclusion, IL-6, IL-8, and PCT are better parameters than CRP in the diagnosis and follow-up of neonatal sepsis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) and in the exclusion of bacterial infection among those with enteroviral infection among febrile infants presenting from home.     

Procalcitonin in pediatric emergency departments for the early diagnosis of invasive bacterial infections in febrile infants: results of a multicenter study and utility of a rapid qualitative test for this marker

BACKGROUND: Procalcitonin (PCT) is a potentially useful marker in pediatric Emergency Departments (ED). The basic objectives of this study were to assess the diagnostic performance of PCT for distinguishing between viral and bacterial infections and for the early detection of invasive bacterial infections in febrile children between 1 and 36 months old comparing it with C-reactive protein (CRP) and to evaluate the utility of a qualitative rapid test for PCT in ED. METHODS: Prospective, observational and multicenter study that included 445 children who were treated for fever in pediatric ED. Quantitative and qualitative plasma values of PCT and CRP were correlated with the final diagnosis. To obtain the qualitative level of PCT the BRAHMS PCT-Q rapid test was used. RESULTS: Mean PCT and CRP values in viral infections were 0.26 ng/ml and 15.5 mg/l, respectively. The area under the curve obtained for PCT in distinguishing between viral and bacterial infections was 0.82 (sensitivity, 65.5%; specificity, 94.3%; optimum cutoff, 0.53 ng/ml), whereas for CRP it was 0.78 (sensitivity, 63.5%; specificity, 84.2%; optimum cutoff, 27.5 mg/l). PCT and CRP values in invasive infections (PCT, 24.3 ng/ml; CRP 96.5 mg/l) were significantly higher than those for noninvasive infections (PCT, 0.32 ng/ml; CRP, 23.4 mg/l). The area under the curve for PCT was 0.95 (sensitivity, 91.3%; specificity, 93.5%; optimum cutoff, 0.59 ng/ml), significantly higher (P < 0.001) than that obtained for CRP (0.81). The optimum cutoff value for CRP was >27.5 mg/l with sensitivity and specificity of 78 and 75%, respectively. In infants in whom the evolution of fever was <12 h (n = 104), the diagnostic performance of PCT was also greater than that of CRP (area under the curve, 0.93 for PCT and 0.69 for CRP; P < 0.001). A good correlation between the quantitative values for PCT and the PCT-Q test was obtained in 87% of cases (kappa index, 0.8). The sensitivity of the PCT-Q test (cutoff >0.5 ng/ml) for detecting invasive infections and differentiating them from noninvasive infections was 90.6%, with a specificity of 83.6%. CONCLUSIONS: PCT offers better specificity than CRP for differentiating between the viral and bacterial etiology of the fever with similar sensitivity. PCT offers better sensibility and specificity than CRP to differentiate between invasive and noninvasive infection. PCT is confirmed as an excellent marker in detecting invasive infections in ED and can even make early detection possible of invasive infections if the evolution of the fever is <12 h. The PCT-Q test has a good correlation with the quantitative values of the marker.     

C-Reactive protein in viral and bacterial gastroenteritis in childhood*

To differentiate bacterial from viral infections the level of C-reactive protein in serum samples was studied in three groups of children under 5 years of age with gastroenteritis. Of the 53 children with bacterial infection, 41 (77%) had C-reactive protein levels ≥ 12mgl^-1, 32 (66%) ≥ 20mgl^-1 and 24 (45%) ≥ 35mgl^-1. Of the 35 patients with viral infection, 4 (11%) had C-reactive protein levels ≥ 12mgl^-1, 3 (9%)≥20 mgl^-1 and 1(3%) ≥ 35mgl^-1. The best balance between sensitivity and specificity of C-reactive protein was obtained for a cut-off level ≥ 12mgl^-1 (sensitivity 77%, specificity 89%) as compared to ≥ 20mgl^-1 (sensitivity 58%, specificity 97%) and ≥ 35mgl^-1 (sensitivity 44%, specificity 97%). Our results suggest that the determination of C-reactive protein values may be a useful tool for predicting bacterial gastroenteritis in children.     

Limited value of procalcitonin,C-reactive protein,white blood cell,and neutrophil in detecting bacterial coinfection and guiding antibiotic use among children with enterovirus infection

Procalcitonin(PCT),C-reactive protein(CRP),and white blood cell(WBC)have been used as markers of bacterial infection in children for decades.Previous studies ha...