Statistical analysis of the factors affecting the outcome of extradural haematomas: 115 Cases

Summary 115 traumatic extradural haematoma cases who were treated surgically at Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty Neurosurgery Department between 1987 and 1992 are evaluated.When factors affecting the outcome were examined, a strong correlation was found between the result andGlasgow coma scale (GCS) (p<0.00001). The existence of a fracture, the interval between onset of haematoma symptoms and intervention and the existence of an intracerebral haematoma together with contusion accompanying intradural haematoma, affect the outcome in a negative direction. There was no statistical correlation between the outcome and the age of patient, localization of the haematoma and aetiology.     

Prognosis in traumatic basal ganglia haematoma

Summary Twenty two patients with traumatic basal ganglia haematoma were studied. The mean Glasgow Coma Score on admission was 7. 17 patients had sustained high acceleration/deceleration injuries. The location and size of haematoma did not correlate with prognosis. Outcome was poor in 7 patients, while 8 patients died.     

The influence of concomitant intradural pathology on the presentation and outcome of patients with acute traumatic extradural haematoma

Summary The pre-operative and early postoperative CT scans of 120 patients who had surgery for acute extradural haematoma were reviewed. 88 cases (73%) had an extradural haematoma alone (Group 1) while 32 cases (27%) had an additional intradural abnormality (Group 2). The abnormalities were a subdural haematoma in eight, a haemorrhagic contusion in 16 and hemisphere swelling in eight. The two groups were compared with regard to the findings that an additional intradural abnormality is likely to be associated with an older age, an injury following a road traffic accident, a GCS<7 at operation, additional extracranial injuries and a poorer outcome. The increase in the percentage of patients who were unconscious from the onset and the decrease in those who were always conscious with a concomitant intradural damage was without statistical significance.     

The differential mortality of Glasgow Coma Score in patients with and without head injury

ImportanceThe GCS was created forty years ago as a measure of impaired consciousness following head injury and thus the association of GCS with mortality in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is expected. The association of GCS with mortality in patients without TBI (non-TBI) has been assumed to be similar. However, if this assumption is incorrect mortality prediction models incorporating GCS as a predictor will need to be revised.ObjectiveTo determine if the association of GCS with mortality is influenced by the presence of TBI.Design/setting/participantsUsing the National Trauma Data Bank (2012; N = 639,549) we categorized patients as isolated TBI (12.8%), isolated non-TBI (33%), both (4.8%), or neither (49.4%) based on the presence of AIS codes of severity 3 or greater. We compared the ability GCS to discriminate survivors from non-survivors in TBI and in non-TBI patients using logistic models. We also estimated the odds ratios of death for TBI and non-TBI patients at each value of GCS using linear combinations of coefficients.Main outcome measureDeath during hospital admission.ResultsAs the sole predictor in a logistic model GCS discriminated survivors from non-survivors at an acceptable level (c-statistic = 0.76), but discriminated better in the case of TBI patients (c-statistic = 0.81) than non-TBI patients (c-statistic = 0.70). In both unadjusted and covariate adjusted models TBI patients were about twice as likely to die as non-TBI patients with the same GCS for GCS values < 8; for GCS values > 8 TBI and non-TBI patients were at similar risk of dying.ConclusionsA depressed GCS predicts death better in TBI patients than non-TBI patients, likely because in non-TBI patients a depressed GCS may simply be the result of entirely reversible intoxication by alcohol or drugs; in TBI patients, by contrast, a depressed GCS is more ominous because it is likely due to a head injury with its attendant threat to survival. Accounting for this observation into trauma mortality datasets and models may improve the accuracy of outcome prediction.     

Aggressive operative neurosurgical management in patients with extra-axial mass lesion and Glasgow Coma Scale of 3 is associated with survival benefit: A propensity matched analysis

IntroductionPrognosis in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 3 is poor, raising concern regarding the utility of aggressive operative neurosurgical management. Our purpose was to describe outcomes in a propensity matched population with TBI and GCS3 treated with operative neurosurgical procedures of craniotomy or craniectomy (CRANI).MethodsWe conducted a five-year, multicenter retrospective cohort study of patients with an ED GCS 3 and a positive head CT identified by ICD-9CM diagnosis codes. Two populations were examined: (1) patients with extra-axial mass lesion (subdural or epidural haematoma), (2) patients without mass lesion (subarachnoid and intraparenchymal haemorrhage including contusion, other intracerebral haemorrhage or intracranial injury including diffuse axonal injury). In patients with extra-axial mass lesion, propensity score techniques were used to match patients 1:1 by CRANI, and the following outcomes were analysed with conditional logistic regression: survival, favourable hospital disposition to home or rehabilitation, and development of complications.ResultsThere were 541 patients with TBI and GCS3; 19% had a CRANI, 83% were initiated within 4 h. In those with mass lesion, 27% (91/338) had a CRANI; after matching, a significant survival benefit was observed with CRANI vs. without CRANI (65% vs. 34% survival, OR: 3.9 (1.6–10.5) p < 0.001). There was borderline increased odds of favourable disposition (43% vs. 26%, OR: 2.4 (0.99–6.3, p = 0.052) with CRANI vs. without CRANI, and no difference in developing a complication (58% vs. 48%, OR: 1.5 (0.7–3.4), p = 0.30).ConclusionsSurvival was achieved in 65% of patients that underwent surgical intervention for subdural and epidural haematoma, despite a presenting GCS of 3. These results demonstrate prompt operative neurosurgical management of mass lesion is warranted for selected patients with a GCS of 3, contributing to a significant 4-fold survival benefit. In the absence of mass lesion the effect of immediate neurosurgery on outcomes is inconclusive.     

Management of life-threatening blunt head trauma in childhood-A case report

INTRODUCTIONTraumatic head/brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and life-long disability in children. The key to successful management of extradural haematoma is early recognition and evacuation.PRESENTATION OF CASEWe report the successful management of a child with life-threatening traumatic brain injury requiring timely surgical intervention outside of a specialist neurosurgical unit.DISCUSSIONChildren with an operable injury have improved outcomes if their lesion is surgically evacuated within four hours. This can be challenging in regions located a significant distance from paediatric neurosurgical specialist centres.CONCLUSIONThis case supports the recommendation for general surgeons maintaining the skill of burrhole evacuation of extradural haematomas. Whether this will remain feasible in the era of “super-specialisation” is questionable.     

颅脑损伤患者血流动力学指标与住院转归相关性研究

目的:研究颅脑损伤（traumatic brain injury, TBI）患者EV1000血流动力学指标与住院转归的相关性,了解TBI患者术中血流动力学参数变化特点及EV1000血流动力学监测的临床意义。方法:回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京天坛医院2018年2月—2019年12月于全身麻醉下行颅内血肿清除术的TBI患...     

Asymptomatic extradural haematomas. Results of a multicenter study of 158 cases in minor head injury

Summary The authors report a study conducted in three Italian neurosurgical centres on 158 patients admitted after a minor head injury and with CT findings of a hitherto asymptomatic significant extradural haematoma.All patients were examined both prospectively by means of a computerized record containing 18 clinical and radiological parameters, and retrospectively by logistical regression analysis, in order to ascertain which factors influenced most the choice of surgical vs. conservative management.The size of the haematoma, rather than its location, and the degree of midline shift were the factors most influential in deciding in favour of surgical treatment, with a specificity of 0.83 and a sensitivity of 0.92. Conservative management of haematomas having a maximum thickness of less than 10 mm with a midline shift of less than 5 mm appears as safe. Outcome was good recovery in both the surgical and the nonsurgical patients, with only one death in the whole series, unrelated to the extradural lesion. This study focusses attention on a group of patients who are seldom examined by CT scan, but who can harbour potentially lethal lesions. Extension of CT scan examination to all adult patients with a minor head injury and a skull fracture can be recommended in order to identify significant haematomas in an asymptomatic phase.     

Survival of trauma patients with coma and bilateral fixed dilated pupils

Background

Survival of patients with severe trauma presenting with Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) 3 and bilateral fixed dilated pupils is uncertain. Pre-hospital management of these patients affects the true measurement of the GCS and other factors may affect pupillary status.

Patients and methods

A retrospective review was undertaken of all patients who were classified GCS 3 and had bilateral fixed dilated pupils on admission to a Level 1 Adult Trauma Centre between July 2001 and March 2005. Pre-hospital assessment, hospital interventions and outcomes were determined.

Results

Ninety-three patients fulfilled the criteria for inclusion into the study. There were 6 survivors who were all less than 28 years of age, had at least one GCS score above 3 in the pre-hospital phase and were more likely to have had an evacuable mass lesion on CT brain scan and undergo craniotomy. Of the 6 surviving patients, none had significant thoracoabdominal injuries. Four of the survivors had Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) of 4 or 5. Time to hospital, mechanism of injury and pre-hospital haemodynamic parameters had no significant effect on survival. Of the 57 patients who were GCS 3 at the scene of the accident, post-basic resuscitation and on admission, none survived.

Conclusion

Pre-hospital GCS scores, prior to the effects of intubation, sedation and paralysis should be given more attention when assessing prognosis in patients who are GCS 3 on admission. Trauma patients with GCS 3 persisting from the scene with bilaterally fixed dilated pupils have no appreciable chance of survival. Further interventions such as ICU admission and surgery may not be warranted. Physicians may need to consider stopping treatment and discussing organ donation.     

Comparison of two simple models for prediction of short term mortality in patients after severe traumatic brain injury

Introduction

The subscale motor score of Glasgow Coma Scale (msGCS) and the Abbreviated Injury Score of head region (HAIS) are validated prognostic factors in traumatic brain injury (TBI). The aim was to compare the prognostic performance of a HAIS-based prediction model including HAIS, pupil reactivity and age, and the reference prediction model including msGCS in emergency department (ED), pupil reactivity and age.

Paediatric duodenal haematoma: Nonoperative management of blunt traumatic injury

Trauma is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the paediatric population. Following the head and extremities, the abdomen is the third most commonly injured anatomic region in children [1]. We present a case of a massive duodenal haematoma secondary to blunt trauma that was managed nonoperatively. Several cases reports in the literature cite successful nonoperative management of duodenal haematoma by nasogastric decompression, bowel rest, and total parenteral nutrition [4], with resumed eating an average of 16 days after injury [9]. However, if the abdominal pain or obstruction fail to improve and/or resolve with medical management over seven to ten days, complications such as infarction or peritonitis are frequent, and surgical intervention may be required [3].     

Serum neuron-specific enolase as a predictor of short-term outcome and its correlation with Glasgow Coma Scale in traumatic brain injury

Elevated serum neuron-specific enolase levels are correlated with brain cell damage. Low scores according to Glasgow Coma Scale are also considered as serious poor prognostic factor. The aims of the study were to investigate whether there is a correlation between the two measurements in patients with traumatic brain injury and whether serum neuron-specific enolase levels have potential as a screening test to predict outcome. A total of 169 consecutive patients with traumatic brain injury admitted to our clinic between 2002 and 2005 are included in this study. Those patients, who had any major health problem before trauma, were excluded from the study. However, patients with isolated head injury were included in the study. Serial serum neuron-specific enolase concentrations taken at the first 2, 24, and 48 h after traumatic brain injury were analyzed. A computed tomography was performed on each patient on admission. Their Glasgow Coma Scale scores were recorded serially. The relationship between Glasgow Coma Scale scores and the serum neuron-specific enolase levels were assessed by statistical methods. There was a significant negative correlation between the serum neuron-specific enolase levels and Glasgow Coma Scale scores. The levels of neuron-specific enolase were significantly higher in the patients who died in 30 days after trauma and whose scores were lower than or equal to 8 points in Glasgow Coma Scale. Although there are several serious limitations of the use of neuron-specific enolase as a biomarker in traumatic brain injury (i.e., hypoperfusion, extracranial trauma, bleeding, liver, or kidney damage also increase the level of neuron-specific enolase), its concentrations may be useful as a practical and helpful screening test to identify neurotrauma patients who are at increased risk and may provide supplementary estimation with radiological and clinical findings.     

Analysis of incidence of traumatic brain injury in blunt trauma patients with Glasgow Coma Scale of 12 or less

Purpose

Early diagnosis of traumatic brain injury (TBI) is important for improving survival and neurologic outcome in trauma victims. The purpose of this study was to assess whether Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) of 12 or less can predict the presence of TBI and the severity of associated injuries in blunt trauma patients.

Penetrating craniocerebral missile injuries in civilians: A retrospective analysis of 314 cases

Analysis of 314 cases of penetrating craniocerebral missile injuries in civilians revealed a high rate of early mortality, with 228 victims having died at the scene and a further 38 dead within 3 hours. Surgery was performed in 44 patients who had a preoperative Glasgow Coma Score of at least 4. Out of the 26 survivors, all operated upon, 19 had an adequate recovery (score of 0–3 on the expanded Glasgow Outcome Scale). Vigorous resuscitation and early surgery often resulted in useful survivals and occasionally in spectacular recoveries. However, the high mortality rate on the scene or soon after the injury restricted the possibility of effective management to a minority of cases.     

The incidence and severity of injury in children hospitalised for traumatic brain injury in Kashmir

A large number of people experience traumatic brain injury each year, often with severe consequences. This is a public health problem that requires ongoing surveillance to follow trends in the incidence, risk factors, causes, and outcomes of these injuries. In 2003, a prospective study of all children below 15 years admitted to hospitals with a diagnosis of head injury was conducted in the Accident & Emergency Department of Sher-e-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Srinagar (India) to determine the incidence and severity of accidental head injury among children and the circumstances of injury. The highest incidence of head injury was seen at ages 6-10 years. Head injury rates were higher in males than in females. The leading causes include falls and motor vehicle accidents. More than 50% falls occurred in the age group of 4-6 years. Ninety per cent patients, who recovered, were discharged within 16-24 h after admission. Lack of supervision, non-implementation of safety measures and poor implementation of traffic rules leads to many injuries. The ability of the health care system to deal with increasing trauma in Jammu & Kashmir is limited. Nevertheless, prevention can be low cost strategy to overcome this problem. The results of epidemiological studies are affected by factors like demography, geographic region and socioeconomic status. This study emphasizes the need for intensified effort for prevention, minimising risk factors, strict legislative measures, observing traffic rules, implementation of safety measures, establishing appropriate trauma care at district level, adult supervision, and creating awareness.     

Outcome after surgical decompression of severe traumatic brain injury

One of the factors that affects outcome following severe traumatic brain injury is development and progression of cerebral oedema with associated increase in intracranial pressure (ICP).

Uncontrolled elevations of ICP may compromise energy metabolism of the injured brain and lead to secondary injury, affecting neurological outcome of the patient. Decompressive craniectomy has been used for over a century as a treatment of refractory brain swelling in a variety of neurological conditions. However, conclusive evidence of whether it has a beneficial or adverse affect on outcome is lacking.

This article reviews the existing evidence on the role of decompressive craniectomy in management of patients with traumatic brain injury and stresses the need for randomised controlled trials.     

Changes produced by CT scanning in the outlook of severe head injury

Summary This is a study of the changes that have occurred in the field of severe head injury since the advent of CT scanning, comparing two homogeneous series of patients selected by clinical status (Glasgow Coma Scale 8), namely a series of 1,000 cases admitted to our Department between 1973 and 1976, already published in this Journal³¹, and one of 385 cases cared for between 1979 and 1980, when CT scanning had become generally available. The two series of patients compare very closely in many respects, particularly in the incidence of surgical cases. In the more recent series the overall outcome was better both in surgical and in non-surgical cases. Among patients in the CT scan series the incidence of brain contusion associated with haematoma was greater than that of pure subdural haematomas. In non-surgical patients the CT scan, unlike cerebral angiography, afforded better identification of traumatic lesions and the grouping of patients into homogeneous categories correlating with a given outcome.On admission, cerebral angiography and CT scanning were equally effective in detecting lesions of surgical import; later in the course of the illness, however, CT scanning proved far more effective in detecting changes, with fully 15% of the patients being referred for surgery in the light of repeat CT scan findings as opposed to only 4% undergoing surgery on the indications of repeat angiography. Also, in the new series the mean interval from injury to surgery was shorter, with 64% of patients being operated on within 6 hours of the injury. The incidence of lucid intervals dropped from 30% in the first series to 16% in the second, both among surgical and non-surgical patients.That the systematic repetition of CT scans was instrumental in preventing the worsening of clinical status is demonstrated by the fact that 54 patients treated surgically for expanding lesions were excluded from the second series because they could be treated before they reached a GCS score of 8 or less, whereas such cases were quite exceptional in the older series. The CT scan approach resulted in a material increase of surgical interventions.Overall, the comparison of these two series of cases selected only by the criterion of clinical severity fails to provide a complete expression of the impact of CT scanning on our daily dealing with severe head injuries.     

替代剂量的甲泼尼龙治疗急性中重型颅脑创伤后肾上腺皮质功能减低的应用

目的研究急性重型颅脑创伤病人中替代剂量地使用甲泼尼龙（methvlprednisn10ne）联合甘露醇能否改善患者预后状况。方法将74位：急性中重型颅脑外伤病人随机均分成A（GCS=7．57±2．97）、B（GCS=7．81±2,85）两组,然后按照GCS标准再将每组颅脑外伤病人按病情轻重分为中．重型两个亚组（即A1（中型颅脑损伤17人,GCS=10．35±1．13）、A2（重型颅脑损伤20人,GCS=5．20~1．75）、B1（中型颅脑损伤18人,GCS=i0．33-±1．11）、B2（重型颅脑损伤19人,GCS=5．42±1．70））,实验组A组病人在创伤后给予甲泼尼龙（1．0mg·kg。·d。）治疗。对照组B组病人给予同时间同样剂量的安慰剂治疗,疗程均为lO天,其余诊疗经过,如手术及手术方式、营养支持治疗、脱水治疗以及其他用药、护理等情况无明显差异。结果经过治疗,实验组A1亚组病人10天后8例GCS评分≥12分,5例GCS评分9～12分,3例GCS评分3～8分,1例死亡．死亡率5．82％,GCS=11．697±-3．40,与治疗前相比GCS评分未见明显统计学差异（P〉0．05）;实验组A2亚组病人10天后5例GCS评分≥12分,6例GCS评分9～12分,4例GCS评分3～8分,5例死亡,死亡率25．00％,GCS=10．46±3．30,与治疗前GCS相比具有统计学差异（P〈0．01）;对照组B1亚组病人10天后6例GCS评分≥12分,8例GCS评分9～12分。2例GCS评分3～8分,2例死亡,死亡率11．11％,GCS=11．06±2．56,与治疗前GCS相比无统计学差异（p〉0．05）;对照组B2亚组病人10天后2例GCS评分≥12分,5例GCS评分9～12分．6例GCS评分3-8分,7例死亡,死亡率36．84％,GCS=8．15±3．28,与治疗前GCS相比有统计学差异（P〈0．01）;治疗10天后A1组病人与B1组病人GCS评分比较不具有显著统计学差异（P〉0．05）．A2组病人与B2组病人GCS评分比较具有显著统计学差异（P〈0．05）。结论在中型颅脑创伤病人的治疗中使用替代剂量的甲泼尼龙不能显著改善预后,但也不会使病情恶化;而在重型颅脑创伤病人的治疗中使用替代剂量的甲泼尼龙与未使用者相比能显著改善患者预后状况。