Immune-related adverse events with immune checkpoint blockade: a comprehensive review

Cancer immunotherapy is coming of age; it has prompted a paradigm shift in oncology, in which therapeutic agents are used to target immune cells rather than cancer cells. The first generation of new immunotherapies corresponds to antagonistic antibodies that block specific immune checkpoint molecules cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein (PD-1) and its ligand PD-L1. Targeting these checkpoints in patients living with cancer had led to long-lasting tumour responses. By unbalancing the immune system, these new immunotherapies also generate dysimmune toxicities, called immune-related adverse events (IRAEs) that mainly involve the gut, skin, endocrine glands, liver, and lung but can potentially affect any tissue. In view of their undisputed clinical efficacy, anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 antibodies are entering in the routine oncological practice, and the number of patients exposed to these drugs will increase dramatically in the near future. Although steroids can be used to treat these IRAEs, the associated immunosuppression may compromise the antitumour response. Oncologists must be ready to detect and manage these new types of adverse events. This review focuses on the mechanisms of IRAE generation, putative relationship between dysimmune toxicity and antitumour efficacy, as a basis for management guidelines.     

肿瘤免疫治疗中不可忽视的免疫相关不良反应

免疫检查点抑制剂已在我国被批准进入临床应用,随之而来的免疫相关不良反应(irAE)需引起临床医师的关注。文章总结了针对抗程序性细胞死亡蛋白和程序性细胞死亡蛋白配体抗体引起的irAE发病率、特征性临床表现以及治疗方法,探讨了其可能的发病机理、不同类型恶性肿瘤发病率的差别、影响因素以及未来的研究方向,为临床肿瘤医师对肿瘤irAE的识别和监控加以指导。     

免疫检测点抑制剂特殊安全性问题的认识及处理

近几年,美国食品药品管理局（FDA）相继批准了抗细胞毒T淋巴细胞相关抗原4（CTLA-4）和抗程序性死亡受体1（PD-1）两种免疫检测点抑制剂（ICBs）用于黑色素瘤和非小细胞肺癌的治疗。研究发现,ICBs在多种肿瘤亚型的治疗中均有效,包括小细胞肺癌、肾细胞癌、尿道上皮癌、头颈鳞状细胞癌、胃癌、肝细胞癌、卵巢癌、三阴性乳腺癌以及错配修复缺陷型直肠癌等。这些以免疫系统为靶点的药物疗效显著,但同时伴随一定的免疫相关不良事件（irAEs）或者免疫异常毒性的发生,如何管理这些毒副作用尚没有成熟的方法。本综述将对目前国内外关于ICBs免疫异常毒性的管理相关经验进行总结,以期能够给临床医师在肿瘤患者的免疫异常毒性管理工作中提供一些参考。     

Neurological adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: Review of the literature

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting CTLA4 and PD1 constitute a promising class of cancer treatment but are associated with several immune-related disorders. We here review the literature reporting neurological adverse events (nAEs) associated with ICIs. A systematic search of literature, up to February 2016, mentioning nAEs in patients treated with ICIs was conducted. Eligible studies included case reports and prospective trials. One case seen in our ward was also added. Within the 59 clinical trials (totalling 9208 patients) analysed, the overall incidence of nAEs was 3.8% with anti-CTLA4 antibodies, 6.1% with anti-PD1 antibodies, and 12.0% with the combination of both. The clinical spectrum of neurological disorders was highly heterogeneous. Most of these nAEs were grade 1–2 and consisted of non-specific symptoms such as headache (55%). The incidence of high grade nAEs was below 1% for all types of treatment. Headaches, encephalopathies and meningitis were the most commonly reported (21%, 19% and 15%, respectively). Among the 27 case reports, the most common nAEs were encephalopathies, meningoradiculoneuritis, Guillain-Barré like syndromes and myasthenic syndromes. The median time of nAEs onset was 6 weeks. In most cases, drug interruption and steroids led to neurological recovery, even in conditions where steroids are not usually recommended such as Guillain-Barré syndrome.     

免疫检查点抑制剂的毒性风险分析

近些年免疫检查点抑制剂在肿瘤治疗领域取得了重大突破,包括恶性黑色素瘤、非小细胞肺癌等,近期并获得微卫星不稳定肿瘤的适应证。但与此同时也伴随一系列毒性的产生,主要为免疫相关不良反应,几乎累及各个系统,与传统化疗药物、靶向药物相关不良事件存在很大区别;同时尽管严重不良事件的发生率不高,但部分为致死性,且治疗干预缺乏足够的证据支持,临床认识不足。本文结合最新文献报道,从免疫检查点抑制剂的毒性风险特征、风险预测标志物、监测管理等方面进行综述。     

sST2在免疫检查点抑制剂相关不良反应风险预测中的价值

背景与目的:免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitor,ICI)在过去10年深刻改变了抗肿瘤治疗的格局,显著延长了恶性肿瘤患者的生存期。但随着其在临床上的广泛使用,免疫治疗相关不良反应(immune-related adverse event,irAE)也逐渐被报道和关注,但目前尚缺乏可靠的生物学指标用于预测irAE的发生风险。本文通过联合多个生物学指标,构建了用于预测肿瘤患者接受ICI治疗后发生irAE风险的模型。方法:共纳入2018年10月—2020年12月于复旦大学附属中山医院肿瘤内科住院治疗的恶性肿瘤患者共91例,将纳入研究的患者按照是否在接受ICI治疗后出现G2级别以上的irAE分为irAE组(n=13)和对照组(n=78)。回顾性分析了两组患者在接受ICI治疗前后包括血清可溶性肿瘤抑制因子(soluble form of suppression of tumorigenicity-2,sST2)、预后营养指数(prognostic nutritional index,PNI)及血小板与淋巴细胞比例(neutrophil to lymphocyt...     

Cutaneous adverse effects of the immune checkpoint inhibitors

The immune checkpoint targeted agents, anti–cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and anti–programed cell death 1 (PD-1) or anti–programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors are frequently associated with cutaneous side effects that are often dose limiting and can lead to discontinuation of therapy. Ipilimumab, a CTLA-4 inhibitor, is most commonly associated with a morbilliform eruption on the trunk and extremities and pruritus. More severe cutaneous toxicities reported include toxic epidermal necrolysis and severe drug rash with eosinophila and systemic symptoms. Recent case reports of Sweet syndrome and cutaneous sarcoidosis have also recently been described after treatment with ipilimumab. The cutaneous events usually occur early in the course of treatment and are dose dependent. PD-1 inhibitors, nivolumab and pembrolizumab, induce similar but less severe toxicities compared with the CTLA-4 inhibitors. The most common cutaneous adverse events include lichenoid reactions, eczema, vitiligo, and pruritus. Lichenoid oral mucosal lesions located on the tongue, buccal mucosa, lips, or gingivae or located on all of these have also recently been described. The time of onset of the cutaneous events with the PD-1 inhibitors occurs later than that seen with the CTLA-4 inhibitors. Anti–PD-L1 antibodies, such as atezolizumab, have a similar side effect profile compared with the PD-1 inhibitors. Combination of immune checkpoint inhibitors, ipilimumab and nivolumab, has recently been approved for the treatment of advanced melanoma. The combination therapy is associated with a more severe side effect profile compared with the agents used as monotherapy. We discuss the most frequently encountered cutaneous side effects of the immune checkpoint inhibitors and review the recommended management strategies.     

Tissue-resident memory T cells in immunotherapy and immune-related adverse events by immune checkpoint inhibitor

Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) are a specialized subset of T cells that reside in tissues and provide long-term protective immunity against pathogens that enter the body through that specific tissue. TRM cells have specific phenotype and reside preferentially in barrier tissues. Recent studies have revealed that TRM cells are the main target of immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy since their role in cancer immunosurveillance. Furthermore, TRM cells also play a crucial part in pathogenesis of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Here, we provide a concise review of biological characteristics of TRM cells, and the major advances and recent findings regarding their involvement in immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy and the corresponding irAEs.     

Myasthenia gravis: An emerging toxicity of immune checkpoint inhibitors

The advent of immunotherapy has heralded a number of significant advances in the treatment of particular malignancies associated with poor prognosis (melanoma, non-small-cell lung, renal and head/neck cancers). The success witnessed with therapeutic agents targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, programmed cell death protein 1 and programmed cell death ligand 1 immune checkpoints has inevitably led to an explosion in their clinical application and the subsequent recognition of specific toxicity profiles distinct from those long recognised with chemotherapy. Consequently, as the utility of such therapies broaden, understanding the nature, timing and management of these immune-related adverse events (irAEs) becomes increasingly significant. Although neurological irAEs are considered relatively rare in comparison with hepatitis, colitis, pneumonitis and endocrinopathies, one emerging side-effect is myasthenia gravis (MG). Among the 23 reported cases of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated MG, 72.7% were de novo presentations, 18.2% were exacerbations of pre-existing MG and 9.1% were exacerbations of subclinical MG. The average onset of symptoms was within 6 weeks (range 2–12 weeks) of treatment initiation. In addition, there was no consistent association with elevated acetylcholine antibody titres and the development of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related MG. Significantly, there was a 30.4% MG-specific-related mortality, which further emphasises the importance of early recognition and robust treatment of this toxicity. In addition to a review of the existing literature, we present a new case of pembrolizumab-induced MG and provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of action of this phenomenon.     

Endocrine-related adverse events associated with immune checkpoint blockade and expert insights on their management

Agents that modulate immune checkpoint proteins, such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death receptor-1 (PD-1), have become a mainstay in cancer treatment. The clinical benefit afforded by immune checkpoint inhibitors can be accompanied by immune-related adverse events (irAE) that affect the skin, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and endocrine system. The types of irAEs associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors are generally consistent across tumor types. Immune-related endocrine events can affect the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, as well as other downstream target organs. These events are unique when compared with other irAEs because the manifestations are often irreversible. Immune-related endocrine events are typically grade 1/2 in severity and often present with non-specific symptoms, making them difficult to diagnose. The mechanisms underlying immune-related target organ damage in select individuals remain mostly undefined. Management includes close patient monitoring, appropriate laboratory testing for endocrine function, replacement of hormones, and consultation with an endocrinologist when appropriate. An awareness of the symptoms and management of immune-related endocrine events may aid in the safe and appropriate use of immune checkpoint inhibitors in clinical practice.     

Analysis of immune-related adverse events in gastrointestinal malignancy patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are becoming an increasingly common treatment for advanced gastrointestinal cancer, but the possibility of immune-related adverse events has raised concerns. This study aimed to evaluate the risks of immune-related adverse events between patients who received immune checkpoint inhibitors and those who received chemotherapy among different types of gastrointestinal cancer. The study utilized data from the multicenter TriNetX database in the United States covering the period between 2015 and 2022. Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals were used to describe the relative hazard of immune-related adverse events based on comparing time-to-event rates. Our study revealed that the incidence of immune-related adverse events was significantly higher in patients who received immune checkpoint inhibitors and chemotherapy compared to those who received chemotherapy only in treating gastrointestinal cancer. CTLA-4 inhibitors tended to have a higher rate of immune-related adverse events compared to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. Our study found a lower mortality rate among patients who developed immune-related adverse events compared to those who did not after propensity score matching (HR, 0.661; 95% CI 0.620–0.704; p < .01). We provide important real-world data on the incidence and impact of immune-related adverse events in patients with advanced gastrointestinal cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Our study's results support clinicians in making informed decisions about the potential benefits and risks of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy for patients with gastrointestinal cancer.     

恶性肿瘤患者免疫治疗相关肝不良事件的影响因素

目的探讨恶性肿瘤患者免疫治疗相关肝毒性的临床特征及其影响因素。方法回顾性分析2016年1月至2019年3月就诊于中国医学科学院肿瘤医院深圳医院南山肿瘤中心和华中科技大学协和深圳医院接受免疫检查点抑制剂治疗的112例恶性肿瘤患者的临床资料,其中男64例,女48例;中位年龄60岁。结果112例患者中,肝不良事件发生率为26.8%(30/112),3~5级肝不良事件发生率为7.14%(8/112),出现肝不良事件的中位时间为接受免疫治疗后3周。单因素及多因素分析均显示,患者肝不良事件的发生与肝癌有关(P<0.05)。发生3~5级肝不良事件患者接受规范甲强龙治疗后,4~6周内肝功能恢复。结论肝癌为恶性肿瘤患者免疫治疗发生相关肝脏不良事件的危险因素。     

真实世界中免疫检查点抑制剂导致免疫相关不良反应病例分析

目的:探讨免疫检查点抑制剂（immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs）导致的免疫相关不良反应（immune-related adverse events,irAEs）的发生情况。方法:收集并分析2018年1月至2021年3月我院irAEs的具体情况,包括基本资料、用药情况、不良反应具体情况、治疗情况等。结果:63例irAEs,包括肺毒性3例、肝脏毒性9例、皮肤毒性23例、内分泌毒性15例、神经毒性4例、肾毒性3例、胃肠毒性1例、心脏毒性2例、血液毒性1例、眼毒性2例。男性47例,女性16例,中位发病年龄61岁,不良反应中位发生时间6.6周,17例需要大剂量糖皮质激素治疗。毒性级别1-2级49例,3-4级13例,5级1例。少见irAEs 14例,1例死于心肌炎。结论:irAEs涉及的器官或系统较多,多数在3级以下。常见不良反应预后较好。少见irAEs中,心肌炎可能导致患者死亡,需要临床予以重视。     

肿瘤免疫检查点疗法的研究进展

经过多年研究,免疫检查点疗法终于成为许多癌症的治疗方法。免疫检查点分子主要包括两类：细胞相关蛋白4（CTLA－4）和程序性细胞死亡蛋白1（PD1）。靶向这两类分子的抗体已面世,并在临床取得不错疗效。在这篇综述中,我们主要介绍免疫检查点疗法,并讨论联合治疗的协同设计进展。     

Correlation between immune-related adverse events and long-term outcomes in pembrolizumab-treated patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND Although immune checkpoint inhibitor(ICI) therapy has improved the prognosis of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC), it has also resulted in unique immune-related adverse events(irAEs). The relationship between irAE and treatment outcomes in ICI-treated unresectable HCC patients remains unknown.AIM To elucidate the correlation between immune-related toxic effects and prognosis in patients with unresectable HCC treated with pembrolizumab.METHODS From March 2019 to February 2021,...     

Renal complications of immune checkpoint blockade

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved for a variety of cancer species. Renal complications in use of these agents are not very common compared with other immune-related adverse events (irAE). However, it is crucial for physicians to recognize and manage renal manifestations of irAE. In this review, we will summarize the up-to-date knowledge of the clinical presentation, pathologic features, and management of renal irAE. In addition, we will discuss the safety of immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with chronic kidney disease as well as in kidney transplant recipients.     

晚期非小细胞肺癌免疫治疗相关不良反应与疗效的相关性研究进展

非小细胞肺癌(Non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC)是肺癌最常见的组织学类型,诊断时多为晚期,病死率较高。免疫检查点抑制剂(Immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs)的应用显著提高了晚期NSCLC患者的5年生存率,但带来生存获益的同时,也导致免疫相关不良事件(Immune-related adverse events, irAEs)的发生。近年来,irAEs和ICIs临床疗效之间的关联性成为研究的热点。本文就晚期NSCLC中irAEs与免疫治疗疗效的相关性研究进展进行综述。     

Analysis of characteristics and predictive factors of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related adverse events

Objective:We aimed to retrospectively analyze the toxicity profiles and predictors of immune-related adverse events (irAEs) as well as the correlation between irAEs and the clinical efficacy of multi-type immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in patients with advanced pan-cancer in a real-world setting.Methods:We retrospectively analyzed data from 105 patients with advanced pan-cancer treated with multi-type ICIs at the First Hospital of Jilin University between January 1, 2016 and August 1, 2020. We used logistic regression analyses to investigate the associations of irAEs with clinical baseline characteristics, blood count parameters, and biochemical indicators during treatment. Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to determine cutoff values for parameters and area under the curve values. Kaplan–Meier and Cox multivariate regression analyses were performed to estimate the relationships of baseline characteristics and irAEs with progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS).Results:A lower relative lymphocyte count (cutoff = 28.5%), higher albumin level (cutoff = 39.05 g/L), and higher absolute eosinophil count (AEC) (cutoff = 0.175 × 10⁹/L) were significantly associated with the occurrence of irAEs, among which a higher AEC (cutoff = 0.205 × 10⁹/L) was strongly associated with skin-related irAEs [odds ratios (ORs) = 0.163, P = 0.004]. Moreover, a higher lactate dehydrogenase level (cutoff = 237.5 U/L) was an independent predictor of irAEs of grade ≥ 3 (OR = 0.083, P = 0.023). In immune cell subgroup analysis, a lower absolute count of CD8⁺CD28⁻ suppressor T cells (OR = 0.806; 95% confidence interval: 0.643–1.011; P = 0.062), which are regulatory T lymphocytes, was associated with the occurrence of irAEs, although the difference was not statistically significant. Furthermore, a higher percentage of CD19⁺ B cells was associated with the occurrence of irAEs of grade ≥ 3 (P = 0.02) and grade ≥ 2 (P = 0.051). In addition, patients with any grade of irAE had a significantly high PFS (8.37 vs. 3.77 months, hazard ratios (HR) = 2.02, P = 0.0038) and OS (24.77 vs. 13.83 months, HR = 1.84; P = 0.024).Conclusions:This retrospective study reports clinical profile data for irAEs in unselected patients in a real-world setting and explored some parameters that may be potential predictive markers of the occurrence, type, or grade of irAEs in clinical practice. Evidence of a correlation between safety and efficacy may facilitate a complete assessment of the risk-benefit ratio for patients treated with ICIs.     

An overview of the toxicities of checkpoint inhibitors in older patients with cancer

Checkpoint inhibitors offer an exciting new option for treatment of a wide variety of cancers. By binding to surface receptors or their associated ligands on T cells, this class of drugs enhances immune activation and response to cancer cells. In available studies, the drugs are well tolerated, although toxicity involving skin, gastrointestinal tract, liver, lungs, and endocrine organs has been observed. Unfortunately, few studies to date have included patients older than 70?years of age. Since aging has been linked to changes in immune function, there are theoretical concerns that this patient population might experience a different profile of adverse events. This article reviews the tolerability of checkpoint inhibitors in older patients with cancer in clinical practice.