A prospective study of fever in the intensive care unit

Objective: To determine the epidemiology of fever on the intensive care unit (ICU). Design: Prospective, observational study. Setting: Nine-bed general ICU in a 500-bed tertiary care inner city institution. Patients: 100 consecutive admissions of 93 patients over a 4-month period between July and October 1996. Interventions: All patients were seen and examined by one investigator within 24 h of ICU admission. Patients were followed up on a daily basis throughout their ICU stay, and all clinical and laboratory data were recorded during the admission. Measurements and results: Fever (core temperature ≥ 38.4 °C) was present in 70 % of admissions, and it was caused by infective and non-infective processes in approximately equal number. Most fevers occurred early in the course of the admission, within the first 1–2 days, and most lasted less than 5 days. The median Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score was 15 ( ± 0.6). The 70 episodes associated with fever at any time were associated with a significantly higher APACHE II score on admission than the afebrile episodes (15.8 ± 6.1 vs 12.1 ± 6.7, p = 0.04). The most common cause of non-infective fever was in the group designated post-operative fever (n = 34). All the patients in the post-operative fever group were febrile on day 0 or day 1; their mean admission APACHE score was 12.4 ( ± 4.4) compared to 15.9 ( ± 7.1) for the remaining patients (p = 0.01). Fever alone was not associated with a higher mortality: 26/70 (37 %) of febrile patients died, compared to 8/30 (27 %) of afebrile patients, (χ ² = 1.23, p = 0.38). Prolonged fever ( > 5 days) occurred in 16 patients. In 13 cases, fever was due to infection, and in the remaining 3 both infective and non-infective processes occurred concurrently. The mortality in the group with prolonged fever was 62.5 % (10/16) compared to 29.6 % (16/54) in patients with fever of less than 5 days' duration, a highly significant difference (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Fever is a common event on the intensive care unit. It usually occurs early in the course, is frequently non-infective and is often benign. Prolonged fever is associated with a poor outcome. Post-operative fever is a well-recognised but poorly defined syndrome which requires further study. Received: 29 December 1998 Final revision received: 16 March 1999 Accepted: 14 April 1999     

Complications of care in a pediatric intensive care unit: A prospective study

Objectives (a) To examine the frequency, type, and severity of complications occurring in a pediatric intensive care unit; (b) to identify populations at risk; and (c) to study the impact of complications on morbidity and mortality.Design Prospective survey.Setting Pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) of a university-affiliated hospital.Patients 1035consecutive admissions over an 18-month period.Results 115 complications occurred during 83 (8.0%) admissions, for 2.7 complications per 100 PICU-days; 48 (42%) complications were major, 45 (39%) moderate, and 22 (19%) minor. Sixty complications (52%) were ventilator-related, 14 were drug-related, 13 procedure-related, 24 infectious, and 22 involved invasive devices (18 vascular catheters). Human error was involved in 41 (36%) cases, 21 of which were major (18%). Treatments included reintubation <24 h (28), intravenous antimicrobials (24), and invasive bedside procedures (14). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was required in 6 patients. Thirteen patients with complications died (15.7%); 2 deaths were directly due to complications.Patients with complications were younger, had longer lengths of stay, and had a higher mortality. Length of stay was a positive risk factor for complication risk (odds ratio=1.09, 95% confidence interval: 1.05 to 1.13;p=0.0001); other patient characteristics had no predictive effect. Kaplan-Meier estimates showed that the most severe complications occurred early in the PICU stay. The best indicators of patient mortality were number of complications (odds ratio=2.96, 95% confidence interval 1.72 to 5.08;p=0.0001), and mortality risk derived from the Pediatric Risk of Mortality Score (odds ratio=1.08, 95% confidence interval 1.06 to 1.10;p=0.0001). Mortality was correlated with increasing severity of complications.Conclusion Complications have a significant impact on patient care. Patients may be at increased risk earlier in their PICU course, when the number of interventions may be greatest. Complications may increase patient mortality and predict patient death better than other patient variables.     

The relationship between labour cost per patient and the size of intensive care units: a multicentre prospective study

Objective We examined the relationship between major ICU characteristics and labour cost per patient.Design Four-week prospective data collection, in which the hours spent by each physician and nurse on both in-ICU and extra-ICU activities were collected.Setting Eighty Italian adult ICUs.Measurements and results The cost of the time actually spent by ICU staff on ICU patients (labour cost) was computed for each participating unit, by applying to the average annual salaries the proportions of in-ICU activity working time for physicians and nurses. Multiple regression analysis was used to identify ICU characteristics that predict labour costs per patient. Labour cost per patient was positively correlated with ICU mortality and patients average length of stay (slopes =0.67, p =0.048 and 0.09, p <0.0001, respectively). Labour cost per patient decreases almost linearly as the number of beds increases up to about eight, and it remains nearly constant above about twelve beds. The number of patients admitted per physician (not per nurse) increases with the number of beds (Spearman correlation coefficient =0.567, p <0.0001).Conclusions Our findings suggest that ICUs with less than about 12 beds are not cost-effective.The authors appear on behalf of the GiViTI group [Gruppo Italiano per la Valutazione degli Interventi in Terapia Intensiva (Italian Group for the Evaluation of Interventions in Intensive Care Medicine)]. A complete list of study participants appears in the Appendix     

The cost of intensive care: A comparison on one unit between 1988 and 1991

Objective To assess the changes in cost of intensive care in one unit after a 3 year period and to evaluate the relative costs of an integrated high dependency unit.Design Combined retrospective and prospective audit of all expenditure incurred in an intensive care/high dependency unit over two periods: April 1988 – Feburary 1989 and January–July 1991.Setting Combined 13-bedded intensive care/high dependency unit of a central London teaching hospital.Results: The overall cost rose by 50%. Hidden costs such as infrastructure maintenance, capital assets, pathology and radiology services accounted for nearly a quarter of total expenditure. Pharmacy and supplies each accounted for some 10% of total expenditure whereas staff costs exceeded 50%. The cost of the intensive care section rose by 14% to £ 1149 per patient day as increased bed occupancy offset increases in nurse: patient ratios and expenditure on consumables. However, the cost of the high dependency unit section rose by 87% to £ 437.83. This was due to a lower bed occupancy (through increased patient turnover), improved staffing ratios, and increased utilisation of equipment and supplies.Conclusions Intensive care is an increasingly expensive speciality, the costs for which are rising over and above the rate of general inflation. Staff costs are by far the largest single item of expenditure. Large reductions in spending on drugs and consumables are unlikely to provide considerable savings on the total budget. Hidden costs account for a high proportion of the budget and should be taken into account when evaluating cost. The significantly lower cost of high dependency care should encourage studies into its cost-effectiveness.     

Person-centred care among intensive care unit nurses: A cross-sectional study

ObjectivePractising person-centred care is crucial for nurses in the intensive care unit, as patients have high physical and psychological care needs. We aimed to identify the predictors of person-centred care among nurses working in intensive care settings.MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, 188 intensive care unit nurses at four tertiary hospitals in two cities of South Korea were included. They completed self-reported questionnaires on emotional intelligence, compassion satisfaction, secondary traumatic stress, burnout, and person-centred care. Emotional intelligence was measured using the Korean version of the Wong and Law’s emotional intelligence scale. Compassion satisfaction, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout were measured by the Professional Quality of Life questionnaire (version 5). Person-centred care was measured using the person-centred critical care nursing scale.ResultsMultiple regression identified compassion satisfaction (β = 0.49, p <.001) as the most powerful predictor of person-centred care, followed by emotional intelligence (β = 0.21, p =.004) and intensive care unit career length (β = 0.17, p =.021). These three variables accounted for 31.0 % of the variance in person-centred care.ConclusionsThis study highlights the importance of career length, emotional intelligence, and compassion satisfaction in the promotion of person-centred care among intensive care unit nurses. Nursing management should contemplate specific measures to reduce turnover among experienced intensive care unit nurses and to enhance the factors that promote person-centred care, such as compassion satisfaction and emotional intelligence.     

Toward less sedation in the intensive care unit: a prospective observational study

Purpose

Excessive sedation is associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation and longer intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital stays. We evaluated the feasibility of using minimal sedation in the ICU.

Methods

Prospective observational study in a university hospital 34-bed medico-surgical department of intensive care. All adult patients who stayed in the ICU for more than 12 hours over a 2-month period were included. Intensive care unit admission diagnoses, severity scores, use of sedatives and/or opiates, duration of mechanical ventilation, length of ICU stay, and 28-day mortality were recorded for each patient.

Results

Of the 335 patients (median age, 61 years) admitted during the study period, 142 (42%) received some sedation, most commonly with midazolam and propofol. Sedative agents were administered predominantly for short periods of time (only 10% of patients received sedation for >24 hours). One hundred fifty-five patients (46%) received mechanical ventilation, generating 15?240 hours of mechanical ventilation, of these, only 2993 (20%) hours were accompanied by a continuous sedative infusion. Self-extubation occurred in 6 patients, but only 1 needed reintubation.

Conclusions

In a mixed medical-surgical ICU, minimal use of continuous sedation seems feasible without apparent adverse effects.     

The perceived quality of interprofessional teamwork in an intensive care unit: A single centre intervention study

This article describes a study that evaluated the quality of teamwork in a surgical intensive care unit and assessed whether teamwork could be improved significantly through a tailor-made intervention. The quality of teamwork prior to and after the intervention was assessed using the Interprofessional Practice and Education Quality Scales (IPEQS) using the PROSE online diagnostics and documenting system, which assesses three domains of teamwork: organisational factors, care processes, and team members’ attitudes and beliefs. Furthermore, team members evaluated strengths and weaknesses of the teamwork through open-ended questions. Information gathered by means of the open questions was used to design a tailor-made 12-week intervention consisting of (1) optimising the existing weekly interdisciplinary meetings with collaborative decision-making and clear communication of goal-oriented actions, including the psychosocial aspects of care; and (2) organising and supporting the effective exchange of information over time between all professions involved. It was found that the intervention had a significant impact on organisational factors and care processes related to interprofessional teamwork for the total group and within all subgroups, despite baseline differences between the subgroups in interprofessional teamwork. In conclusion, teamwork, and more particularly the organisational aspects of interprofessional collaboration and processes of care, can be improved by a tailor-made intervention that takes into account the professional needs of healthcare workers.     

Intra-hospital transfer anxiety of patients in the neurosurgery intensive care unit: A prospective cohort study

BackgroundTransferring a patient from the intensive care unit to different locations within the hospital can cause transfer anxiety. Transfer anxiety is an important factor that adversely affects various physiological and psychological parameters.ObjectiveThe aim of the study is to evaluate the intra-hospital transfer anxiety of patients in a neurosurgery intensive care unit and factors affecting it.MethodsThis prospective cohort study was conducted between November 2021 and June 2022 in a neurosurgery intensive care unit in Istanbul. A total of 171 adult patients who stayed in the intensive care unit for at least 24 h, with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 14 and above and who had undergone their first intra-hospital transfer were included. Patients’ vital signs were recorded, and their anxiety levels were assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.ResultsThe mean age of the patients was 53.16 ± 15.51 years and 56.72% were women, 75.43% of transfers were performed during the day and 64.32% of patients were transferred to an in-patient ward. Factors affecting transfer anxiety were gender, employment status, timing, and purpose of transfer (p < 0.05). Blood pressures and heart rates tended to increase during transfer and decrease again after transfer, while oxygen saturation decreased during transfer (p = 0.035) and increased again after transfer (p < 0.001). State anxiety levels were moderate before transfer and decreased to mild level after transfer (p < 0.001).ConclusionsThe transfer process increased anxiety and caused changes in the vital signs of intensive care patients. Individual and transfer-related factors may influence transfer anxiety. Patients should be monitored for transfer anxiety and nursing interventions to reduce anxiety should be planned.Implications for clinical practiceThe patients’ demographics and transfer details can influence transfer anxiety. Transfer anxiety can affect both subjective parameters and objective measures such as vital signs. Patients at risk of transfer anxiety should be identified before transfers so that nursing interventions to reduce anxiety can therefore be planned.     

The characteristics and factors associated with omitted nursing care in the intensive care unit: A cross-sectional study

IntroductionPrior research showed that work environment features in acute care settings influence nurses’ capacity to provide care and impacts patient outcomes (e.g., falls). However, little is known about this phenomenon in the intensive care unit. The objectives of this study were to describe the characteristics of omitted nursing care, and to examine the associations between work environment features, omitted nursing care and nurse-reported outcomes in the intensive care unit.MethodsAn electronic cross-sectional correlational study was conducted in the province of Quebec, Canada. Over September 2021, nurses were asked to complete the Healthy Work Environment Assessment Tool (HWEAT), the Intensive Care Unit Omitted Nursing Care instrument (ICU-ONC) and to report their perceptions of nurse-reported outcomes (e.g., quality of care). The associations between these variables were estimated using multivariable cluster-robust regression models, adjusted for nurse and hospital characteristics.ResultsA total of 493 nurses from 42 distinct hospitals participated to this study. On average, nurses felt that their work environment was acceptable, and that the quality and safety of patient care was good. Basic care activities (e.g., mobilisation) were most frequently reported as omitted as opposed to those related to surveillance and medical interventions. In multivariable analyses, higher work environment scores were associated with reduced omitted nursing care scores (p < 0.001) and better ratings for nurse-reported outcomes (p < 0.001). Also, higher omitted nursing care scores were associated with more negative perceptions about the quality and safety of care (p < 0.001).ConclusionOur study portrays the characteristics and some factors associated with omitted nursing care in the intensive care unit. Further research should determine whether intensive care nurses’ reports of organisational features and omitted nursing care are associated with objectively captured patient outcomes.     

Nursing care of patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome in the intensive care unit: case reports in Hong Kong

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was diagnosed in more than 8437 patients in 25 countries between February and July 2003. During this period the World Health Organisation issued a global alert about SARS and together with the Centre for Disease Control have coordinated their efforts to investigate its pathogenesis and treatment. The outbreak in Hong Kong has been dramatic due to its geographical proximity with Guangdong province, China where the first case of SARS was reported. SARS has been described as a rapidly progressive, sometimes fatal pneumonia with a case fatality rate of 7.6% requiring intensive care. The four case reports illustrate a number of important points concerning the recognition, treatment, management and prevention of SARS, and highlights the importance of considering vigilant assessment and monitoring of patients with SARS. The purpose of this paper is to share our experiences in caring for critically ill patients with SARS in the intensive care unit to nurses globally in order to reduce SARS' morbidity and mortality as well as to protect nurses and other healthcare workers from this disease that is so far threatening the community at large.     

Role of renal sonography in the intensive care unit

PURPOSE: This study was conducted to evaluate the role of portable renal sonography in the intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of 402 ICU patients who underwent renal sonography. We recorded demographic data, underlying disease, type of ICU, renal function test results, etiology of renal failure, need for dialysis, and outcome for patients with acute renal failure (ARF). The indications for and results of sonography were analyzed. RESULTS: The most common indication for a renal sonographic examination was ARF (320/402, 79.6%). Hydronephrosis was found in 5 patients with ARF. Chronic renal failure was confirmed by sonography in 40% of the patients with an indeterminate cause of renal failure. In 33% of cases of complicated urinary tract infections, sonography revealed abnormalities. Renal sonography was also useful for follow-up assessment of patients treated with percutaneous nephrostomy and patients with a history of renal tumor, hydronephrosis, adrenal tumor, hematuria of unknown cause, or fever of unknown origin. CONCLUSIONS: Since renal disease is common in the ICU, renal sonography is a convenient and useful diagnostic tool in this setting.     

重症监护病房下呼吸道感染临床特点及病原菌耐药性分析

目的 了解重症监护病房(ICU)患者下呼吸道感染的临床特点和病原菌分布及耐药情况,为临床合理使用抗菌药物提供依据.方法 对2008年1月至2010年8月我院ICU发生下呼吸道感染患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析,对分离出的病原菌进行菌株鉴定,药敏试验采用琼脂扩散(K-B)法,结果依据CLSI(2007)标准判读.结果 ICU共收治患者509例,发生下呼吸道感染147例,下呼吸道感染发生率为28.9%(147/509);分离出病原菌283株,其中主要为G-杆菌占86.9%,其他病原菌包括G+球菌(7.4)%和真菌(5.7)%;最常见的病原菌依次为鲍曼不动杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、嗜麦芽寡养单胞菌、真菌、大肠埃希菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、洋葱伯克霍尔德菌等,分别占24.7%、20.5%、12.7%、6.4%、5.7%、5.3%、5.3%、4.6%;主要病原菌对多种抗菌药物耐药严重.结论 ICU下呼吸道感染的发生率高,G-杆菌是导致下呼吸道感染的主要病原菌,且对抗菌药物呈多重耐药.     

Predictive factors of intensive care unit admission in patients with haematological malignancies and pneumonia

Objective To describe early signs at the onset of pneumonia occurring in the haematology ward which could be associated with a transfer to the ICU.Design A 13-month preliminary prospective observational cohort study.Setting Department of haematology and (32-bed) medical intensive care unit (ICU).Patients Fifty-three of 302 patients hospitalised in the haematology ward who developed presumptive clinical evidence of pneumonia were enrolled.Measurements and results At the onset of the clinical evidence of pneumonia (day 1), we compared variables between patients requiring an ICU admission and those who did not. Twenty-four patients (45%) required a transfer to the ICU. Factors associated with ICU admission were: numbers of involved quadrants: 2.3 vs 1, P=0.001 and oxygenation parameters (initial level of O₂ supplementation: 3.5 vs 0.9 l/min, P<0.05), the presence of hepatic failure (58% vs 10%, P<0.01), Gram-negative bacilli isolated in blood culture (7 vs 1, P=0.01). In the multivariate analysis, a decrease of 10% in the SaO₂ and the requirement of nasal supplementary O₂ at the onset of acute respiratory failure increased the risk of admission to MICU, respectively, by 18 and by 14. The overall 6-month mortality rate of the 53 patients was 28%.Conclusion Parameters of oxygenation and radiological score could be associated with this transfer on day 1 of the onset of pneumonia occurrence. A further study should evaluate an earlier selection of this type of patient, followed by an early admission to the MICU, in order to improve ICU outcome.     

Nosocomial viral ventilator-associated pneumonia in the intensive care unit: a prospective cohort study

Objective To determine the incidence, risk factors, and clinical relevance of viral ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in an adult intensive care unit (ICU).Design Prospective observational study.Setting A 22-bed adult medical ICU in a university hospital.Patients All consecutive adult patients ventilated more than 48 h in a 9-month period including regular seasonal viral infections.Interventions A tracheobronchial aspirate upon enrollment and at the time of VAP suspicion.Measurements and results All respiratory specimens were tested in culture, indirect immunofluorescence assay, and PCR or RT-PCR for virological assessment. Patients were followed until ICU discharge or death. One hundred thirty-nine patients were included. Upon enrollment, a respiratory virus was detected in the tracheobronchial aspirate in 25% of patients (35 of 139). The incidence of VAP, defined according to clinical daily evaluation, was 28% (39 of 139 patients). A bacteria was documented in 74% of cases, whereas no case of a causative viral infection was encountered among VAP patients; however, herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV 1) infection was detected in respiratory specimens of 31% of VAP (12 of 39).Conclusions We found a high incidence of HSV-1 infection in VAP patients; however, nosocomial viral VAP is likely to be rare in ICU, as assessed by the absence of respiratory virus-induced VAP identified in this prospective cohort study.     

Significance of new-onset prolonged sinus tachycardia in a medical intensive care unit: a prospective observational study

Objective

Few data are available on sinus tachycardia among medical intensive care unit (ICU) patients. We investigated new critical illnesses related to new-onset prolonged sinus tachycardia (NOPST) and the relationship of NOPST with ICU mortality.

Methods

The heart rate (HR) of all enrolled patients was monitored hourly over a 12-month period, and NOPST was defined as sinus tachycardia (>100 beats/min) with an increase in HR of more than 20% from the baseline value lasting longer than 6 hours.

Results

Among the 522 patients enrolled, the average mean HR was 96.1 ± 18.4 beats/min. Fifty-two (10.0%) patients met the criteria for NOPST; pneumonia, delirium, septic shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome, catheter-related infections, and mechanical ventilator–related problems were related to the occurrence of NOPST. The ICU mortality rate in patients with a NOPST duration of more than 72 hours was higher compared with other patients with NOPST (60.0% vs 18.5%; P = .002). A high daily mean HR rather than NOPST was a significant predictor of ICU mortality (odds ratio, 1.415; 95% confidence interval, 1.177-1.700).

Conclusions

Although NOPST was not associated with ICU mortality, it indicates the presence of new critical events in the medical ICU setting.     

Bacterial colonization and infection in an intensive care unit

One hundred and one patients, nursed in an intensive care unit for at least 24h, were monitored for bacterial colonization and infection. The infection rates were similar to those in other reports. Patients were not generally colonized with common environmental strains in the unit. Bacterial dissemination between patients was uncommon. No gentamicin resistant gram negative or Staphylococcus aureus strains were observed, nor methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. the hypothesis that these favourable conditions are partly related to the excellent isolation and barrier nursing facilities in the unit cannot be fully substantiated.