219例活体肾移植供者长期随访分析

目的 探讨活体肾移植供者术后生存质量及恢复情况.方法 对2004年以来219例肾脏捐献超过1年的亲属活体肾移植供者进行随访,评估供者的肾功能、并发症发生情况及生活质量.结果 供者捐肾时年龄为(43.3±11.6)岁(19～66岁),随访时间为术后12～103个月,随访截止时供者存活率为100％.术后稳定期(1年后)供者血清肌酐(Scr)为(84.0±18.7)μmol/L,内生肌酐清除率(Ccr)为(1.23±0.37)ml/s.＞50岁者术后1周及1年后Ccr低于年龄≤50岁者(P＜0.01,P＜0.05).3例供者术后Scr未降至正常范围,其肾脏捐献时年龄＞55岁.术后并发症包括高血压30例(其中5例为术后新发),镜下血尿4例,高脂血症3例,轻度贫血2例,股骨头坏死1例.总体感觉肾脏捐献对健康有影响者共40例,认为肾脏捐献对健康有轻度影响者31例,有较明显影响者7例,有严重影响者2例;偶尔觉伤口疼痛31例,经常感觉伤口疼痛4例.结论 供者肾脏捐献后中长期安全性和生存质量良好,但仍存在肾功能异常风险,尤其是高龄供者,需密切随访.供者随访依从性需进一步提高.     

活体捐肾者的医学风险分析

绝大多数的捐肾者在其整个生命周期里是安全的,但也面临一些医学风险。多项循证医学证据分析显示,捐肾后蛋白尿发生率为10%。捐肾可使微量白蛋白尿的发生风险增加3.9倍。捐肾后10年高血压发病率为9%～36%,需使用降压药的比例为9%～15%,收缩压较术前升高6mmHg(1mmHg=0.133kPa),舒张压较术前升高4mmHg。捐肾可使血压升高的风险增高1.9倍,但捐肾不增加心血管事件发生率。捐肾者终末期肾功能衰竭发生率0.04%,原因主要有高血压(35.71%)、局灶性肾小球硬化(16.07%)、慢性肾盂肾炎(12.50%)、糖尿病(3.57%)等。捐肾后6年时肾小球滤过率较术前下降了26mL·min-1·(1.73m2)-1,捐肾后12年时85.5%的捐肾者肾小球滤过率在60mL·min-1·(1.73m2)-1以上。因此,有必要提高医患双方对捐肾长期安全性的认识,加强监控,及时采取有针对性的肾脏保护性治疗措施。     

Long-term follow-up of the remaining kidney in living related kidney donors

In this work 45 living related kidney donors (LRD) and 20 healthy sex and age matched controls were examined. Donors were evaluated up to 122 months after donation. Hyperfiltration was observed in the remaining kidney with a mean one-kidney GFR value of 82.9±36.8 ml/min while the control value was 71.04±31.5 ml/min. The kidney was significantly larger in the donor group than in the controls. In the LRD group, 3 were hypertensive, 7 showed microscopic haematuria and 5 had mild proteinuria. In the control group 3 were mildly hypertensive, and 2 showed microscopic haematuria. Serum creatinine of the donor group was found to be significantly higher than in the controls, yet it was stable and within the normal range (0.89±0.28 mg/dl). Examination for microalbuminuria showed that 11% of the donor group excreted higher amounts of albumin, being above the upper limit of the control group. We have concluded that kidney donation will result in minor abnormalities in kidney functions which will not affect the donor morbidity or mortality.     

Long-term risk of chronic kidney disease in unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney

The clinical spectrum of renal dysplasia includes the non-functioning multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK). We report our experience of the outcome of unilateral MCDK and its contralateral kidney in 101 children with the diagnosis of MCDK from 1985 to 2009. Data collected included urine protein/creatinine ratio, estimated GFR (eGFR), blood pressure, surgical intervention, renal length and abnormalities of the contralateral kidney, and the involution rate. There was a predominance of left-sided MCDK. Diagnosis was made prenatally in 86.7%. Contralateral abnormalities included vesicoureteral reflux (16.8%), UPJ obstruction (4.1%), and megaureter (2.4%). Complete involution of MCDK occurred within 5 years in 60%. Compensatory hypertrophy of the contralateral kidney to >97% occurred in 74.1%. Nephrectomy was performed in 19.8%. There was an increased risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage ≥2, and hypertension in those with contralateral abnormalities (p < 0.0001; p < 0.001 respectively). In those without contralateral abnormalities, hyperfiltration with mean eGFR of 149 ± 13 ml/min/1.73 m² was seen in 32% and proteinuria in 9.8%. There was a significantly inverse relationship between proteinuria and eGFR (p < 0.0001). In conclusion, children with contralateral abnormalities are at risk for developing decreased kidney function, whereas a substantial number of patients with no obvious contralateral abnormalities have markers of renal injury. Therefore, systematic follow-up of all patients is recommended.     

Cardiovascular disease and hypertension risk in living kidney donors: an analysis of health administrative data in Ontario, Canada

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of any harm associated with living kidney donation guides informed consent and living donor follow-up. Risk estimates in the literature are variable, and most studies did not use a healthy control group to assess outcomes attributable to donation. METHODS: We observed a retrospective cohort using health administrative data for donations which occurred in Ontario, Canada between the years 1993 and 2005. There were a total of 1278 living donors and 6359 healthy adults who acted as a control group. Individuals were followed for a mean of 6.2 years (range, 1-13 years) after donation. The primary outcome was a composite of time to death or first cardiovascular event (myocardial infarction, stroke, angioplasty, and bypass surgery). The secondary outcome was time to a diagnosis of hypertension. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in death or cardiovascular events between donors and controls (1.3% vs. 1.7%; hazard ratio 0.7, 95% confidence interval 0.4-1.2). Donors were more frequently diagnosed with hypertension than controls (16.3% vs. 11.9%, hazard ratio 1.4, 95% confidence interval 1.2-1.7) but were also seen more often by their primary care physicians (median [interquartile range] 3.6 [1.9-6.1] vs. 2.6 [1.4-4.3] visits per person year, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Based on administrative data, the risk of cardiovascular disease was unchanged in the first decade after kidney donation. The observed increase in diagnosed hypertension may be due to nephrectomy or more blood pressure measurements received by donors in follow-up and requires prospective study.     

Long-term kidney function and survival in recipients of allografts from living kidney donors with hypertension: a national cohort study

Allografts from living kidney donors with hypertension may carry subclinical kidney disease from the donor to the recipient and, thus, lead to adverse recipient outcomes. We examined eGFR trajectories and all-cause allograft failure in recipients from donors with versus without hypertension, using mixed-linear and Cox regression models stratified by donor age. We studied a US cohort from 1/1/2005 to 6/30/2017; 49 990 recipients of allografts from younger (<50 years old) donors including 597 with donor hypertension and 21 130 recipients of allografts from older (≥50 years old) donors including 1441 with donor hypertension. Donor hypertension was defined as documented predonation use of antihypertensive therapy. Among recipients from younger donors with versus without hypertension, the annual eGFR decline was −1.03 versus −0.53 ml/min/m² (P = 0.002); 13-year allograft survival was 49.7% vs. 59.0% (adjusted allograft failure hazard ratio [aHR] 1.23; 95% CI 1.05–1.43; P = 0.009). Among recipients from older donors with versus without hypertension, the annual eGFR decline was −0.67 versus −0.66 ml/min/m² (P = 0.9); 13-year allograft survival was 48.6% versus 52.6% (aHR 1.05; 95% CI 0.94–1.17; P = 0.4). In secondary analyses, our inferences remained similar for risk of death-censored allograft failure and mortality. Hypertension in younger, but not older, living kidney donors is associated with worse recipient outcomes.     

Low birthweight and risk of albuminuria in living kidney donors

Low birthweight is linked to hypertension, chronic kidney disease and even end‐stage renal disease. We hypothesized that living kidney donors born with lower birthweight may be at increased risk of hypertension, albuminuria, or reduced GFR beyond what is typical following uninephrectomy. Two hundred fifty‐seven living kidney donors who donated at the University of Minnesota between 1967 and 2005 underwent iohexol GFR and urinary albumin excretion measurements. Predictors of iohexol GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m², albuminuria, and hypertension were examined using logistic regression. Predictors examined include age at GFR measurement, time since donation, BMI, gender, serum creatinine level (at donation and GFR measurement), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, race, and birthweight. The latter was obtained through self‐report and verified through birth certificates and family members. Older age, higher BMI, and time from donation were associated with reduced GFR. Older age and higher BMI were also associated with hypertension. Birthweight was not associated with GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m²: OR=0.70, 95% CI (0.28, 1.74), p = 0.45 or hypertension: OR=0.92, 95% CI (0.46, 1.84), p = 0.82 but was associated with albuminuria: OR=0.37, 95% CI (0.15, 0.92), p = 0.03. These data further strengthen the link between low birthweight and potential adverse renal outcomes.     

Long-term mortality of living kidney donors: a systematic review and meta-analysis

International Urology and Nephrology - To date, several studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding the mortality risk faced by living kidney donors and controls. Our study assessed the...     

Nonresident living kidney donors

INTRODUCTION: The increasing number of immigrant residents has resulted in more foreign patients on the kidney transplant waiting list. While the willingness of their relatives to participate in a living kidney donation program is not different from that of relatives of autochthonous patients, many extra logistic and financial problems have to be solved, when the potential donor has to travel to Rotterdam. The fear of the authorities that the donor might stay in the Netherlands after donation is another hurdle. METHODS AND RESULTS: We analysed 395 living kidney transplantations performed in Rotterdam from 1981 to 2003. In 32 instances the donor came from abroad. Another 14 potential foreign donors came to Rotterdam but did not donate for various reasons. We calculated the costs for visa, travel, insurance, and loss of income. Total financial impact for the 46 (potential) donors, amounted to capital JE, Ukrainian 56,604.09, which is capital JE, Ukrainian 1768.88 per actual performed donation. One kidney donor remained illegally in the Netherlands. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the efforts and support for foreign kidney donors to come to the Netherlands is justified and cost-effective. No evidence was found for a kidney donation immigration route.     

Long-term follow-up of living kidney donors: quality of life after donation

The University of Minnesota has been a strong advocate of living donor kidney transplants. The benefits for living donor recipients have been well documented. The relative low risk of physical complications during donation has also been well documented. Less well understood is the psychosocial risk to donors. Most published reports have indicated an improved sense of well-being and a boost in self-esteem for living kidney donors. However, there have been some reports of depression and disrupted family relationships after donation, even suicide after a recipient's death. To determine the quality of life of our donors, we sent a questionnaire to 979 who had donated a kidney between August 1, 1984, and December 31, 1996. Of the 60% who responded, the vast majority had an excellent quality of life. As a group, they scored higher than the national norm on the SF-36, a standardized quality of life health questionnaire. However, 4% were dissatisfied and regretted the decision to donate. Further, 4% found the experience extremely stressful and 8% very stressful. We used multivariate analysis to identify risk factors for this poor psychosocial outcome and found that relatives other than first degree (odds ratio=3.5, P=0.06) and donors whose recipient died within 1 year of transplant (odds ratio=3.3, P=0.014) were more likely to say they would not donate again if it were possible. Further, donors who had perioperative complications (odds ratio=3.5, P=0.007) and female donors (odds ratio=1.8, P=0.1) were more likely to find the overall experience more stressful. Overall, the results of this study are overwhelmingly positive and have encouraged us to continue living donor kidney transplants.     

Long-term outcomes in nondiabetic chronic kidney disease

The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study examined the effects of strict blood pressure control and dietary protein restriction on the progression of kidney disease. Here, we retrospectively evaluated outcomes of nondiabetic participants with stages 2-4 chronic kidney disease (CKD) from randomized and nonrandomized cohorts of the MDRD Study. Kidney failure and survival status through December of 2000, were obtained from the US Renal Data System and the National Death Index. Event rates were calculated for kidney failure, death, and a composite outcome of death and kidney failure. In the 1666 patients, rates for kidney failure were four times higher than that for death. Kidney failure was a more likely event than death in subgroups based on baseline glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria, kidney disease etiology, gender, and race. It was only among those older than 65 that the rate for death approximated that for kidney failure. In contrast to other populations with CKD, our study of relatively young subjects with nondiabetic disease has found that the majority of the participants advanced to kidney failure with a low competing risk of death. In such patients, the primary emphasis should be on delaying progression of kidney disease.     

Treatment of hypertension in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem in the United States. It is estimated that nearly 20 million Americans have some degree of chronic kidney disease defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate of less than sixty milliliters per minute or evidence of kidney damage by imaging study, biopsy, biochemical testing or urine tests with an estimated glomerular filtration rate more than sixty milliliters per minute. Hypertension is present in more than 80% of patients with CKD and contributes to progression of kidney disease toward end stage (ESRD) as well as to cardiovascular events such as heart attack and stroke. In fact the risk for cardiovascular death in this patient population is greater than the risk for progression to ESRD. Proteinuria is an important co-morbidity in hypertensives with CKD and increase risk of disease progression and cardiovascular events. Treatment of hypertension is therefore imperative. The National Kidney Foundation clinical practice guidelines recommend a blood pressure goal of <130 mmHg systolic and <80 mmHg diastolic for all CKD patients. Recent post-hoc analyses of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease study indicate that lower blood pressure may provide long-term kidney protection in patients with nondiabetic kidney disease. Specifically a mean arterial pressure <92 mmHg (e.g. 120/80 mmHg) as compared to 102-107 mmHg (e.g. 140/90 mmHg) is associated with reduced risk for ESRD. In most cases achieving this goal requires both non-pharmacologic and pharmacologic intervention. Dietary sodium restriction to no more than 2 grams daily is important. In addition, moderate alcohol intake, regular exercise, weight loss in those with a body mass index greater than 25 kg/M(2) and reduced amount of saturated fat help to reduce blood pressure. The first line pharmacologic intervention should be an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker in those with diabetes or non-diabetics with more than 200 mg protein/gram creatinine on a random urine sample. For non-diabetics with less than 200 mg protein/gram creatinine on a random urine sample, no specific first-line drug class is recommended. After initial dosing with an ACEi, ARB or other drug, a diuretic should be added to the regimen. Thereafter, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, apha blockers and alpha 2 agonists (e.g. clonidine) and finally vasodilators (e.g. minoxidil) should be added to achieve blood pressure goal. Combinations of ACEi and ARB are helpful in reducing proteinuria and may also lower blood pressure further in some some cases. Blood pressure should be monitored closely in hypertensive patients with CKD and both clinic and home blood pressure measurements may help the clinician adjust treatment.     

Cardiovascular risk in chronic kidney disease

National Kidney Foundation guidelines define chronic kidney disease (CKD) as persistent kidney damage (confirmed by renal biopsy or markers of kidney damage) and/or glomerular filtration rate (GFR) <60 mL/min/1.73m2 for greater than three months. Patients with CKD experience higher mortality and adverse cardiovascular (CV) event rates, which remains significant after adjustment for conventional coronary risk factors. This progressive CV risk associated with worsening renal function may be explained by other factors that become increasingly important with renal decline. In this regard, more investigation of nonconventional factors that have received a lot of attention includes associations with inflammation, albuminuria, reduced vascular compliance, and homocysteine. In addition, individuals with CKD encounter the problem of "therapeutic nihilism," in which there is a lack of appropriate risk factor modification and intervention, despite established awareness of their high cardiovascular risk. Several studies suggest that these individuals derive as much, if not more, benefit from evidence-based cardiovascular therapies and strategies. Greater educational efforts are needed to reduce this therapeutic gap.