Chronic pain management after surgery

Chronic post-surgical pain is a common problem affecting between 2% and 10% of adults after surgery and a significant health burden. The development of chronic post-surgical pain involves multiple mechanisms including peripheral and central sensitization and nerve injury, thought to be the most significant factor. There are many risk factors including preoperative pain, chemotherapy/radiotherapy, surgical, psychological and genetic factors. The prevention of chronic post-surgical pain is challenging but progress is being made in identifying at risk groups, improved surgical technique and preventative analgesia including regional analgesia. Accurate diagnosis is essential for proper management, including identification of neuropathic pain. Management involves identifying any surgically or medically treatable cause, followed by pharmacological, psychological, physical and interventional management. It is essential for all clinicians involved in the care of surgical patients to have an awareness of chronic post-surgical pain, its prevention, diagnosis and treatment.     

Chronic pain management after surgery

Chronic post-surgical pain is a common problem affecting between 2% and 10% of adults after surgery and a significant health burden. The development of chronic post-surgical pain involves multiple mechanisms including peripheral and central sensitization and nerve injury, thought to be the most significant factor. There are many risk factors including preoperative pain, chemo/radiotherapy, surgical, psychological and genetic factors. The prevention of chronic post-surgical pain is challenging but progress is being made in identifying at-risk groups, improved surgical technique and preventative analgesia including regional analgesia. Accurate diagnosis is essential for proper management, including identification of neuropathic pain. Management involves identifying any surgically or medically treatable cause, followed by pharmacological, psychological, physical and interventional management. It is essential for all clinicians involved in the care of surgical patients to have an awareness of chronic post-surgical pain, its prevention, diagnosis and treatment.     

Future of regional anaesthesia

The development and refinement of regional anaesthetic techniques for various types of surgery, mainly obstetric, ophthalmic and orthopaedic surgery, and of continuous regional analgesia continues. Suitable analgesic drug mixtures, and concentrations, will be further tested in order to find the ideal analgesic regimen for each type of surgery and for the individual patient. No new local anaesthetics or equipment for clinical use are expected in the near future. Improvement therefore depends much on how the anaesthesiologists use the present drugs, needles, nerve detection devices, catheters and pumps. During training in regional anaesthesia for the speciality of anaesthesiology and intensive care medicine, it may suffice to concentrate only on certain common techniques such as epidural block, spinal block, axillary brachial plexus block, intravenous regional anaesthesia and femoral nerve block. Rare regional anaesthetic blocks and invasive techniques should be mastered and taught by specially trained regional anaesthesiology experts. In chronic pain, regional anaesthetic blocks with local anesthetics are not expected to play any major therapeutic role. However, nerve blocks can be useful for diagnostic purposes and in order to facilitate rehabilitation in chronic pain syndromes.     

How to implement an acute pain service

To implement a successful acute pain service the following factors are the most important for success: anaesthesiologist-supervised pain nurses and an ongoing educational programme for patients and all health personnel involved in the care of surgical patients. The benefits in increased patient satisfaction and improved outcome after surgery will far outweigh the costs of running an acute pain service that raises standards of pain management throughout the hospital.Optimal use of basic pharmacological analgesia will improve relief of post-operative pain for most surgical patients. More advanced approaches, such as well-tailored epidural analgesia, are needed to relieve severe dynamic pain (e.g. when coughing). This may reduce markedly risks of complications in patients at high risk of developing post-operative respiratory infections and cardiac ischaemic events.More aggressive methods for post-operative pain management need robust routines that will discover the early symptoms and signs of potentially serious complications. High preparedness must be present for swift and correct handling of the rare but potentially catastrophic complications of bleeding and infection in the spinal canal.Chronic pain is common after surgery. Better acute pain relief may reduce this distressing long-term complication of surgery. Research into the long-term effects of optimal neuraxial analgesia and drugs that dampen glutamatergic hyperphenomena (hyperalgesia/allodynia) are urgently needed to verify whether these approaches can reduce the problem of intractable chronic post-operative pain.     

Sleep disturbance in patients taking opioid medication for chronic back pain

Poor sleep is an increasingly recognised problem with chronic pain and further increases the effect on daily function. To identify the relationship between chronic pain, opioid analgesia and sleep quality, this study investigated activity and sleep patterns in patients taking opioid and non‐opioid analgesia for chronic back pain. Thirty‐one participants (10 healthy controls, 21 patients with chronic pain: 6 on non‐opioid medication; 15 on opioid medication) were assessed using actigraphy, polysomnography and questionnaires. Patients with chronic pain subjectively reported significant sleep and wake disturbances as shown by decreased overall sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, p < 0.001), increased symptoms of insomnia (Insomnia Severity Index, p < 0.001) and increased fatigue (Fatigue Severity Scale, p = 0.002). They also spent increased time in bed (p = 0.016), took longer to get to sleep (p = 0.005) and had high interindividual variability in other measures of activity but no overall irregular rest‐activity pattern. Patients on high doses of opioids (> 100 mg morphine‐equivalent/day) demonstrated distinctly abnormal brain activity during sleep suggesting that polysomnography is necessary to detect sleep disturbance in this population in the absence of irregular rest‐activity behaviour. Night‐time sleep disturbance is common in individuals suffering from chronic pain and may be further exacerbated by opioid treatment. Considerations must be made regarding the appropriate use of combined actigraphy and miniaturised polysomnography for future population‐based studies.     

Perioperative management of the child on long-term opioids

The strategies used to manage children exposed to long-term opioids are extrapolated from adult literature. Opioid consumption during the perioperative period is more than three times that observed in patients not taking chronic opioids. A sparing use of opioids in the perioperative period results in both poor pain management and withdrawal phenomena. The child's pre-existing opioid requirement should be maintained, and acute pain associated with operative procedures should be managed with additional analgesia. This usually comprises short-acting opioids, regional or local anesthesia, and adjuvant therapies. Long-acting opioids, transdermal opioid patches, and implantable pumps can be used to maintain the regular opioid requirement. Intravenous infusion, nurse controlled analgesia, patient-controlled analgesia, or oral formulations are invaluable for supplemental requirements postoperatively. Effective management requires more than simply increasing opioid dose during this time. Collaboration of the child, family, and all teams involved is necessary. While chronic pain or palliative care teams and other staff experienced with the care of children suffering chronic pain may have helpful input, many pediatric hospitals do not have chronic pain teams, and many patients receiving long-term opioids are not palliative. Acute pain services are appropriate to deal with those on long-term opioids in the perioperative setting and do so successfully in many centers. Staff caring for such children in the perioperative period should be aware of the challenges these children face and be educated before surgery about strategies for postoperative management and discharge planning.     

Future perspectives and research initiatives in fast-track surgery

Background and aims Major surgery is still followed by a risk of morbidity, a need for hospitalisation and convalescence. Fast-track surgery has been introduced as a coordinated effort to combine unimodal evidence-based principles of care into a multi-modal effort to enhance recovery. The aim of this article was to update recent data on fast-track abdominal surgery and outline future strategies for research.Results The data from fast-track colonic resection support the validity of the concept because pain, ileus, cardiopulmonary function and muscle function were all improved, compared with traditional treatment and with reduced post-operative fatigue and convalescence. Although less data is available, similar positive results may be achieved in other types of major surgery. Current research initiatives include improved multi-modal non-opioid analgesia, rational principles for perioperative fluid management, pharmacological reduction of surgical stress responses and the role of laparoscopic procedures within the fast-track concept.Conclusions Fast-track surgery has evolved as a valid concept to improve post-operative outcome. Further progress may be expected based upon intensified research within perioperative pathophysiology and a multi-disciplinary collaboration between surgeons, anaesthesiologists and surgical nurses.     

Patient‐controlled oral analgesia versus nurse‐controlled parenteral analgesia after caesarean section: a randomised controlled trial

We assessed the effectiveness of early patient‐controlled oral analgesia compared with parenteral analgesia in a randomised controlled non‐inferiority trial of women undergoing elective caesarean section under regional anaesthesia. Seventy‐seven women received multimodal paracetamol, ketoprofen and morphine analgesia. The woman having patient‐controlled oral analgesia were administered four pillboxes on the postnatal ward containing tablets and instructions for self‐medication, the first at 7 h after the spinal injection and then three more at 12‐hourly intervals. Pain at rest and on movement was evaluated using an 11‐point verbal rating scale at 2 h and then at 6‐hourly intervals for 48 h. The pre‐defined non‐inferiority limit for the difference in mean pain scores (patient‐controlled oral analgesia minus parenteral) was one. The one‐sided 95% CI of the difference in mean pain scores was significantly lower than one at all time‐points at rest and on movement, demonstrating non‐inferiority of patient‐controlled oral analgesia. More women used morphine in the patient‐controlled oral analgesia group (22 (58%)) than in the parenteral group (9 (23%); p = 0.002). The median (IQR [range]) number of morphine doses in the patient‐controlled oral analgesia group was 2 (1–3 [1–7]) compared with 1 (1–1 [1–2]); p = 0.006) in the parenteral group. Minor drug errors or omissions were identified in five (13%) women receiving patient‐controlled oral analgesia. Pruritus was more frequent in the patient‐controlled oral analgesia group (14 (37%) vs 6 (15%) respectively; p = 0.03), but no differences were noted for other adverse events and maternal satisfaction. After elective caesarean section, early patient‐controlled oral analgesia is non‐inferior to standard parenteral analgesia for pain management, and can be one of the steps of an enhanced recovery process.     

Post-thoracotomy pain after thoracic epidural analgesia: a prospective follow-up study

BACKGROUND: Pain becomes chronic in 22-67% of patients who undergo a thoracotomy. Thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA) has replaced less invasive methods to manage postoperative pain. We wanted to find out if active use of TEA, combined with extended pain management at home, reduces the incidence of chronic post-thoracotomy pain. METHODS: All consecutive thoracotomy patients during a 16-month period were included. On the ward, pain was measured daily by VAS during rest and coughing and the consumption of analgesics was registered. The patients were interviewed one week after discharge by telephone and by a questionnaire after 3 and 6 months to find out how much pain they had. RESULTS: A total of 114 patients were recruited. The data were analysed from 89 patients who had had TEA and 22 who had had other methods. TEA was effective in alleviating pain at rest and during coughing. In the TEA patients the incidence of chronic pain of at least moderate severity was 11% and 12% at 3 and 6 months, respectively. One week after discharge 92% of all patients needed daily pain medication. CONCLUSIONS: TEA seems effective in controlling evoked postoperative pain, but technical problems occurred in 24% of the epidural catheters. The incidence of chronic pain was lower compared with previous studies where TEA was not used. The patients had significant pain and needed regular pain medication and instructions during the first week after discharge. Extended postoperative analgesia up to the first week at home is warranted.     

乳腺癌术后疼痛及镇痛方法的研究进展

背景 乳腺癌为女性患者常见的一种恶性肿瘤,手术治疗是主要的治疗措施.乳腺癌术后疼痛具有独特的疾病特点,并且可以成为一种慢性疼痛长期影响患者的生活质量,一直是临床亟待解决的问题. 目的 阐述乳腺癌术后疼痛及镇痛方法的研究进展,为疼痛的预防和治疗提供参考. 内容 综述乳腺癌术后疼痛及其镇痛方法的研究现状. 趋向 进一步探讨乳腺癌术后疼痛综合征的治疗方法,以明确有效的防治措施.     

Uso da buprenorfina transdérmica na dor aguda pós‐operatória: revisão sistemática

Background and objectivesPostoperative pain is still a major concern in several surgical procedures. Multimodal analgesia is best for postoperative pain management; however, opioid therapy is still the main treatment for pain after surgical procedures. Transdermal buprenorphine is a partial μ agonist opioid widely used for chronic pain syndromes, with limited evidence for acute postoperative pain. A systematic review of studies examining transdermal buprenorphine for acute pain management after surgery was conducted.ContentsData from PubMed, Embase, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), CINAHL via EBSCOhost, and LILACS were reviewed, including randomized clinical trials that evaluated total postoperative pain, postoperative analgesic consumption, drug‐related side effects and patient satisfaction with analgesia regimen. Data from nine studies (615 patients) were included in this review. Most studies initiated transdermal buprenorphine use 6 to 48 hours before surgery, maintaining use from 1 to 8 days after the procedure. Most studies showed lower or similar postoperative pain scores, postoperative analgesic consumption and patient satisfaction comparing buprenorphine to placebo, tramadol, celecoxib, flurbiprofen and parecoxib. The incidence of side effects varied between studies, with most showing no increase in drug‐related side effects with buprenorphine use, except one study, which compared buprenorphine to oral tramadol, and one to transdermal fentanyl. However, most results were derived from evidence with an overall high or unclear risk of bias.ConclusionsAlthough more studies are necessary, initial results show that transdermal buprenorphine seems to be an effective and safe opioid choice for management of acute postoperative pain.     

Pre‐operative brachial plexus block compared with an identical block performed at the end of surgery: a prospective,double‐blind,randomised clinical trial

We evaluated whether pre‐emptive analgesia with a pre‐operative ultrasound‐guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block resulted in better postoperative analgesia than an identical block performed postoperatively. Fifty‐two patients undergoing fixation of a fractured radius were included. All patients received general anaesthesia with remifentanil and propofol. Patients were randomly allocated into two groups: a pre‐operative block or a postoperative block with 0.5 ml.kg^?1 ropivacaine 0.75%. After surgery, all patients received regular paracetamol plus opioids for breakthrough pain. Mean (SD) time to first rescue analgesic after emergence from general anaesthesia was 544 (217) min in the pre‐operative block group compared with 343 (316) min in the postoperative block group (p = 0.015). Postoperative pain scores were higher and more patients required rescue analgesia during the first 4 h after surgery in the postoperative block group. There were no significant differences in plasma stress mediators between the groups. Analgesic consumption was lower at day seven in the pre‐operative block group. Pain was described as very strong at block resolution in 27 (63%) patients and 26 (76%) had episodes of mild pain after 6 months. We conclude that a pre‐operative ultrasound‐guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block provides longer and better analgesia in the acute postoperative period compared with an identical postoperative block in patients undergoing surgery for fractured radius.     

Schmerztherapie in der Urologie

This article reviews aspects of postoperative and chronic pain management in urology patients. Continuous epidural techniques are recommended for extensive retroperitoneal und transperitoneal surgery due to its excellent analgesia and facilitation of enhanced recovery. In patients without regional analgesia techniques, intravenous or oral non-opioid analgesics should be combined with titration of fast acting opioids on an as-needed basis. Oral slow-release opioids are increasingly being used as part of systemic pain management although little evidence exists. Local wound infiltration and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) treatment are simple and effective supplements for postoperative pain management. In 70–90% of urological cancer patients pain can be adequately relieved by consistent adherence to the WHO cancer pain recommendations. Additional pain relief approaches, such as radiation as well as psychosocial and spiritual needs of these patients have to be considered. In long-term treatment of non-cancer pain, effective use of opioids is not evidence-based. These patients often benefit from multimodal, interdisciplinary pain management comprising psychological and educational approaches as well as activating physiotherapy.     

Complex regional pain syndrome – Mechanisms, diagnosis, and management

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by regional disabling pain, increased sensitivity to tactile stimuli, swelling, vasomotor and sudomotor abnormality, and impairment of motor function. The disorder usually develops after minor trauma (contusions, sprains, and fractures) or surgery. No specific diagnostic test is available; hence, diagnosis is based mainly on history, clinical examination, and supportive laboratory findings. Evidence suggests that this interaction between peripheral and central systems arises from a number of sources including sympathetic–afferent coupling, re-organization of the central autonomic control, and changes in the somatomotor system and peripheral inflammation. Oral, topical, and intravenous medications targeting alpha-adrenergic receptors (clonidine) and the sympathetic nervous system have not been proven effective by Randomised Controlled Trials. The most commonly used agents, such as anticonvulsants, antidepressants, and opioids, have been found to be useful for other neuropathic pain conditions in large-scale trials but have not been adequately studied in CRPS. This article explores an interdisciplinary setting with comprehensive approach (pharmacological, interventional, and psychological in conjunction with rehabilitation pathway) as the protocol for the practical management of CRPS. Insight in predisposing factors may facilitate early diagnosis and elucidate underlying mechanisms that could provide targets for pharmacotherapy.     

Papel del bloqueo ecoguiado del plano del músculo serrato en el dolor neuropático crónico tras una cirugía de mama en una paciente de cáncer

BackgroundBreast cancer is the most commonly occurring cancer among women. Among its treatment sequelae is chronic neuropathic pain after breast surgery (CNPBS). Pain management is difficult and classicaly consists in a pharmacological approach, however recent studies have advocated the use of locoregional techniques as adjuvants. Serratus plane block (SPB) has recently emerged as a potential tool for the control of CNPBS. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and potencial role of the ultrasound-guided SPB on CNPBS.MethodsA retrospective analysis was performed on 30 patients with CNPBS refractory to drug therapy, who underwent SPB between 2017-2019. The following parameters were analyzed: basal pain, pain at 24 hours, 1 week and at 1 month. The Mann-Whitney test was applied. Statistical significance was considered at the level of p < 0.05. All statistical analysis was performed with SPSS 20.Results3 patients were excluded. At 24 hours, we report pain improvement (at least 30% reduction on basal pain score) on 20 patients and after 1 week on 12. At 1 month after, 22 patients had improved, from these: 11 improved with no therapeutic adjustment; 11 patients improved with therapeutic adjustment (8 in gabapentinoid monotherapy, 3 with introduction of polytherapy). 5 patients didn’t improve.ConclusiónOur study demonstrated SPB as a valid alternative for CNPBS management when pharmacologic therapy has been proven insufficient, with no side effects reported. Randomized studies are needed to assess the magnitude of SPB on CNPBS and to identify the patients who benefit the most from SPB.     

Regional nerve blockade for early analgesic management of elderly patients with hip fracture – a narrative review

Elderly patients with hip fracture experience high morbidity and mortality, and are often undertreated for pain. Acute pain management in the elderly is challenging, with physiological frailty, medical comorbidities and cognitive impairment commonly compounding pain assessment and treatment. Guidelines outlining current best practice for acute pain management in the elderly now exist, but evidence suggests that practice remains variable and there continues to be scope for improvement. We conducted a narrative review of the literature to examine the challenges of acute pain management in the elderly, and to evaluate evidence for the role of regional nerve blocks for acute pain associated with hip fracture in the elderly. There is consistent evidence that regional nerve blocks can effectively reduce pain associated with hip fracture, providing rapid‐onset, site‐specific analgesia that is more effective than standard systemic analgesia alone. There is also moderate evidence that nerve blocks may contribute to reduced rates of delirium, and some suggestion of reduced length of inpatient stay, morbidity and mortality, although limited evidence is available. Fascia iliaca blocks are emerging as a block of choice, with evidence they can be safely and rapidly administered under ultrasound guidance in the acute setting, by both trained medical and nursing staff, with good effect. Ideally, comprehensive pain protocols for elderly hip fracture patients are required, that integrate evidence‐based fascia iliaca block use, timely and repeated pain assessment, and multidisciplinary orthogeriatric patient care.     

Pain management of opioid-treated cancer patients in hospital settings in Denmark

Aim: To evaluate the performance and quality of cancer pain management in hospital settings. Methods: Anaesthesiologists specialised in pain and palliative medicine studied pain management in departments of oncology and surgery. Study days were randomly chosen and patients treated with oral opioids were included. Information regarding pain aetiology and mechanisms, pain medications and opioid side effects were registered from the medical records and by examining patients. Pain intensity was assessed using the Brief Pain Inventory. Results: In total, 59 cancer patients were included. In 49 (83%) patients pain aetiology was assessed by the physicians of the departments of oncology and surgery. In only 19 (32%) patients they assessed pain mechanisms. The median oral morphine dose was 120 mg/day (range: 10–720 mg/day). Seventy‐eight per cent of patients received opioids at adequate regular intervals according to the duration of action. In 88% of the patients supplemental short‐acting oral opioids were given on demand and the median supplemental oral dose was 16.5% of the daily dose. Seven patients with neuropathic pain received adjuvant drugs, whereas six patients with non‐neuropathic pain received adjuvant drugs. Regarding opioid side effects only constipation and nausea were treated in the majority of the patients. Average pain intensity in the last 24 h for the total number of patients (n=59) ≤5 cm was 88.1% (confidence interval 77.1–95.1). Conclusion: Cancer pain was prevalent in opioid‐treated patients in hospital settings: however, focussing on average pain intensity, the outcome seems favourable compared with other countries. Pain mechanisms were seldom examined and adjuvant drugs were not specifically used for neuropathic pain. Opioid dosing intervals and supplemental opioid doses were most often adequate. However, opioid side effects were highly prevalent and most side effects were left untreated.     

Epidurale Analgesie in der Behandlung postoperativer Schmerzen Eine Übersicht

This review highlights the advantages of regional anaesthesia techniques, especially of epidural analgesia, for the management of postoperative and posttraumatic pain: excellent pain relief and a high degree of patient satisfaction, even compared to the gold standard of acute pain therapy, i.v. PCA with opioids. Further advantages of epidural analgesia (EA) are discussed, such as early recovery of gastrointestinal function, reduction of postoperative respiratory complications, lower incidence of myocardial ischema, better mobilisation, reduced risk of thromboembolism, lower incidence of chronic pain problems (such as phantom limb pain) etc. Nevertheless, many studies failed to show significant effects on outcome (e.g. mortality). Weighing the risks, costs and benefits of EA, this technique is indicated in case of significant postoperative pain, especially in case of painful mobilisation, in patients with significant pulmonary risk factors (ASA 3 or IV), in patients where an improved perfusion or gastrointestinal motility is deemed essential, and if chronic pain syndromes are common problems that should be prevented (e.g. amputation). For the praxis of epidural analgesia it is emphasised to place the catheter in an appropriate segment to obtain sufficient analgesia without side effects. Organisational structures (such as an acute pain service) and appropriate monitoring allow to continue EA with local anaesthetics and/or opioids on surgical wards. Recommendations are given for the monitoring of EA on surgical wards. Clear cut agreements should define the role of anaesthesiologists, surgeons and nurses in the management of patients treated with postoperative EA on surgical wards.     

A review of clinical evidence supporting techniques to prevent chronic postoperative pain syndromes

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review to evaluate the level of evidence for using acute postoperative pain management techniques with a view to pre-empting the later development of chronic pain syndromes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Systematic review of the literature on the treatment of acute postoperative pain and its usefulness in preventing postoperative chronic pain syndromes. RESULTS: Fifteen studies focusing on 3 conditions were examined: chronic postmastectomy pain syndrome, chronic postthoracotomy pain syndrome, and chronic phantom limb pain. Four clinical trials provided no clear evidence of benefit from preoperative injections of local anesthetic in decreasing the incidence of chronic postmastectomy pain. Continuous thoracic epidural analgesia started before surgery has been shown to have a clearly beneficial effect in preventing chronic pain 3, 6, and 12 months after thoracotomy. Chronic phantom limb pain syndromes have not been found to be prevented by the use of continuous epidural analgesia started before or after surgery in comparison with the injection of local anesthetics through a perineural catheter or the oral or intramuscular administration of morphine-like drugs. CONCLUSIONS: Only chronic pain following thoracotomy has been found to be preempted by acute pain management and only by continuous thoracic epidural analgesia started before surgery. There is no solid evidence demonstrating that other techniques used to relieve acute postoperative pain have a beneficial effect in preempting chronic postoperative pain syndromes.     

The effect of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on acute and chronic donor-site pain after spinal-fusion surgery

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The development of chronic pain after spinal-fusion surgery represents a significant source of morbidity. One of the predictive factors for the development of chronic postsurgical pain is inadequate acute postoperative pain management. Further, the up-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) after surgery may result in neuro-plastic changes that may contribute to a progression from acute to chronic pain. The goal of this prospective, randomized, double-blind study was to examine the effect of perioperative COX-2 inhibition on acute and chronic donor-site pain in patients undergoing spinal-fusion surgery. METHODS: Eighty patients scheduled to undergo instrumented posterior spinal fusion were randomized to either receive celecoxib 400 mg 1 hour before surgery, and then 200 mg every 12 hours after surgery for the first 5 days or receive matching placebo at similar time intervals. Patients were administered morphine via patient-controlled analgesia pump for the first 24 hours, and then acetaminophen and oxycodone tablets. Patients were asked to quantify their average pain on postoperative days 1 to 5. At 1 year after surgery, patients were questioned about the presence and subjective characteristics of any residual donor-site pain. RESULTS: Patients administered celecoxib reported lower pain scores and less opioid use during the first 5 postoperative days. Chronic donor-site pain was significantly higher (P<.01) in the placebo group (12 of 40, or 30%) compared with the celecoxib group (4 of 40, or 10%) at 1 year after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The administration of celecoxib for the first 5 days after spinal-fusion surgery resulted in improved analgesia and a reduction in chronic donor-site pain at 1 year after surgery.