Gender differences in the initiation of injection drug use among young adults

To characterize the circumstances surrounding initiation of injecting drug use, data were collected from 229 young, recently initiated injection drug users enrolled through community-based recruitment in Baltimore, Maryland. Gender differences in the pattern of initiation, the number of persons present at initiation, risky injection, and sexual behaviors at initiation, as well as behaviors after initiation, were examined. Overall, men and women were similar statistically with respect to age at initiation (19.5 years) and risk behaviors at initiation. While men were initiated by men (77%), women were more often initiated by women (65%), most of whom were friends (75%) or relatives (23%). The percentage of women infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was slightly greater than that of men, 17% versus 11% (P<.2), whether initiated by a man or a woman. Persons who self-initiated had a lower HIV prevalence and fewer HIV-related risk behaviors. Analysis of variance assessed differences in the HIV risk profiles of female and male IDUs who were intiated by someone of the same sex, of the opposite sex, or who self-initiated. These results indicated that (1) young women and men had similar patterns of injection initiation; (2) most women were initiated by female friends, runing counter to earlier literature claims that women were initated to injection drug use by male sex partners; and (3) women initiated by men had a marginally greater mean score on the HIV risk profile.     

Young Australian adults' beliefs about alcohol's role in sexual aggression and victimisation

Beliefs and misconceptions about sex, gender, and rape have been explored extensively to explain attributions concerning alcohol-involved sexual violence. However, less is known about the specific beliefs that people hold about how alcohol facilitates sexual aggression and victimisation. The present study aimed to identify these alcohol-related beliefs among young Australian adults. Six men and nine women (N = 15; 18–24 years) in focus groups (n = 13) and interviews (n = 2) were asked to discuss the role of alcohol in a hypothetical alcohol-involved rape. Using a consensual qualitative research methodology, the effects of alcohol that were seen to introduce, progress, and intensify risks for rape were: increased confidence; character transformation; impaired cognition; behavioural disinhibition; altered sexual negotiation; enhanced self-centredness; impaired awareness of wrongdoing; increased/decreased sexual assertiveness; and compromised self-protection. Some of the beliefs identified in this study are not currently captured in alcohol expectancy measures which assess people's beliefs about alcohol's effects on cognition, emotion, and behaviour. This study's findings offer a conceptual basis for the development of a new alcohol expectancy measure that can be used in future rape-perception research.     

Older adults' beliefs about physician-estimated life expectancy: a cross-sectional survey

Background

A major marketing technique used by pharmaceutical companies is direct-to-physician marketing. This form of marketing frequently employs promotional marketing brochures, based on clinical research, which may influence how a physician prescribes medicines. This study's objective was to investigate whether or not the information in promotional brochures presented to physicians by pharmaceutical representatives is accurate, consistent, and valid with respect to the actual studies upon which the promotional brochures are based.

Methods

Physicians in five clinics were asked to consecutively collect pharmaceutical promotional brochures and to send them all to a centralized location. The brochures for any class of medication were collected on a continuous basis until 20 distinct promotional brochures were received by a central location. Once the brochure was received, the corresponding original study was obtained. Two blinded reviewers performed an evidence-based review of the article, comparing data that was printed on the brochure to what was found in the original study.

Results

Among the 20 studies, 75% of the studies were found to be valid, 80% were funded by the pharmaceutical company, 60% of the studies and the corresponding brochures presented patient-oriented outcomes, and 40% were compared to another treatment regimen. Of the 19 brochures that presented the data as graphs, 4 brochures presented a relative risk reduction while only 1 brochure presented an absolute risk reduction. 15% of the promotional marketing brochures presented data that was different from what was in the original published study.

Conclusion

Given the present findings, physicians should be cautious about drawing conclusions regarding a medication based on the marketing brochures provided by pharmaceutical companies.     

Gender differences in the factors influencing consistent condom use among young people in Tanzania

AIDS has become a major cause of death in Tanzania and young people represent the most vulnerable group. Recent HIV prevalence data showed that young women are more likely than young men to become infected. This paper examined commonalties and differences in the sociodemographic and ideational predictors of condom use among young men and women in Tanzania. The data derive from a 2004 sample survey among young people aged 15-24 years in five regions of Tanzania. The sample on which the analyses were based included 1,523 single women and 1,200 single men. An ideation framework guided the analyses of the predictors of consistent condom use. Logistic regression was the main analytic method used and separate models were estimated for men and women. The most significant correlates of consistent condom use for men included perceived self-efficacy for correct condom use, discussing condom use with friends, and perceived self-efficacy for using condoms with a long-term partner. Discussing condom use with a sex partner and the perceived self-efficacy to refuse sex if the sex partner refused to use a condom were the most significant predictors for women. One implication of the findings is that for men, effective interventions should emphasize correct condom use know-how and address the issue of negative peer pressure and group norms around condom use. For women, interventions should focus on sexual empowerment.     

Gender and hospital resource use. Unexpected differences

Several recent studies have explored gender differences in medical care that are not attributable to clinical characteristics. At an 880-bed teaching hospital between July 1987 and June 1990, we studied the importance of gender on two measures of hospital care: length of stay and ancillary service use. The latter was measured on a relative value unit (RVU) scale, based on an estimation of direct cost dollars. Neither mean age nor in-hospital mortality differed between the 9,102 women and 10,285 men. After case-mix adjustment, women stayed in the hospital 0.22 days longer than men (p = 0.01) but consumed 67 fewer RVUs (p = 0.01). This RVU difference dissolved when intensive care unit (ICU) stays were eliminated; men were 1.13 times more likely (95% confidence interval 1.07 to 1.19) to be placed in the ICU. Being married shortened length of stay and women were less likely to be married (51% vs. 68%; p < 0.001), but even within marital status subgroups women remained in the hospital longer than men. Whether this longer length of stay and less technologically intensive care for women reflects a difference in illness severity or physician gender bias requires further study.     

Sex differences in young adults' snack food intake after food commercial exposure

Exposure to food commercials on television is considered to be related to elevated snack food intake in front of the television. However, this assumed relation has as yet not been fully established. The present study, therefore examined the direct effects of watching television food commercials on concurrent non-advertised snack food intake in young adults. In addition, possible sex differences were investigated. Participants (N=82, 50% male) watched a movie interrupted by two commercial breaks that contained either food commercials or neutral commercials. While watching, they could freely eat crisps and chocolate coated peanuts. Afterwards, participants filled out questionnaires and were weighed and measured. Regression analyses showed that men and women were differently affected by the food commercials. Food intake in women was higher when they watched the food commercials than when they watched the neutral commercials, whereas food intake in men was lower when they watched the food commercials than when they watched the neutral commercials. The results suggest that especially women are vulnerable for eating more snack food when exposed to food commercials.     

Gender differences in tobacco use in Kenya

This study has assessed gender differences in smoking and the use of smokeless tobacco for younger adults and their parents in samples from five ethnic groups in Kenya. These samples were from two groups of pastoralists (the Maasai and the Samburu), a group engaged in fishing and farming (the Luo), and two groups of relatively Westernized Kenyans primarily involved in commercial occupations (from the Kisii and the Gikuyu ethnic groups). In four of the five study groups, there was little or no difference in the prevalence of smokeless tobacco use in either the younger or older generation. Similarly, in four of the study groups there was little or no gender difference in the prevalence of smoking for the older generation. In contrast, for the younger generation in every study group except the Luo, men were much more likely than women to smoke cigarettes. The attitudes toward tobacco use reported by the younger generation showed similar patterns. In every study group except the Luo, the younger adults reported that smokeless tobacco use was socially acceptable for both men and women, but smoking was acceptable only for men. Many of the younger women reported that they did not smoke because it would not be socially acceptable. The interview data suggest that the social prohibition against women's smoking was one component of more general restrictions on women's behavior, and the absence of restrictions on men's smoking was related to men's greater social power. The Luo were the only study group in which respondents reported that women should have as much influence as men in decision making. Correspondingly, the Luo were the only study group in which most respondents considered it acceptable for women to smoke and women were as likely as men to smoke cigarettes.     

Gender differences in eating disorder symptoms in young adults

OBJECTIVE: The major goal of this study was to identify problematic eating behaviors and attitudes in young men and compare them with those of young women. METHOD: A community sample of young adults (n = 1,056) completed a questionnaire that contained the Drive for Thinness, Bulimia, and Body Dissatisfaction subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory, as well as probes for inappropriate compensatory behaviors, excessive exercise, and episodes of binge eating. RESULTS: A five-factor structure fit both male and female samples. Women had substantially elevated scores on all of the factors except excessive exercise, for which men had significantly higher scores. The absolute proportion of men and women wanting or having sought treatment was very low. However, at comparable levels of problematic eating behaviors, women were more likely to have sought treatment than men. DISCUSSION: The questionnaire used in this study encompasses symptoms outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders symptoms, which should prove useful in future research.     

Socioeconomic differences in attitudes and beliefs about healthy lifestyles

STUDY OBJECTIVE:s: The factors underlying socioeconomic status differences in smoking, leisure time physical activity, and dietary choice are poorly understood. This study investigated attitudes and beliefs that might underlie behavioural choices, including health locus of control, future salience, subjective life expectancy, and health consciousness, in a nationally representative sample. DESIGN: Data were collected as part of the monthly Omnibus survey of the Office of National Statistics in Britain. PARTICIPANTS: A stratified, probability sample of 2728 households was selected by random sampling of addresses. One adult from each household was interviewed. MAIN RESULTS: Higher SES respondents were less likely to smoke and more likely to exercise and eat fruit and vegetables daily. Lower SES was associated with less health consciousness (thinking about things to do to keep healthy), stronger beliefs in the influence of chance on health, less thinking about the future, and lower life expectancies. These attitudinal factors were in turn associated with unhealthy behavioural choices, independently of age, sex, and self rated health. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic differences in healthy lifestyles are associated with differences in attitudes to health that may themselves arise through variations in life opportunities and exposure to material hardship and ill health over the life course.     

Constructing commonsense—young people's beliefs about AIDS

Abstract There is growing interest amongst social researchers in enquiry related to lay beliefs about HIV infection and AIDS. Research of this kind is important not only theoretically, in that it may help us to understand more clearly the interface between professional and lay beliefs about health and illness, but also practically, in that it may lead to more effective policy interventions.
This paper reports on findings from a series of in-depth interviews carried out with young people participating in local authority and voluntary sector youth provision and in youth training schemes. It identifies lay beliefs about the nature, causes and origins of AIDS amongst young people in lesbian and gay youth groups, and contrasts these with the beliefs of young people in undifferentiated forms of youth provision.     

Demographic and socioeconomic differences in beliefs about the health effects of smoking.

To assess sociodemographic differences in beliefs about the health effects of cigarette smoking and passive smoke exposure, we recently surveyed 2092 adults in St. Louis and Kansas City, Mo. The percentages of respondents who knew that smoking causes lung cancer, emphysema, and heart disease were 76.7, 74.1, and 67.2, respectively. After multivariate adjustment, knowledge about smoking's health effects was generally lower among women, older respondents, those of lower education level, and current smokers. Blacks were generally less likely to appreciate the health effects of active smoking, but were more likely to acknowledge the health effects of passive smoking.     

Gender differences in stories of everyday Internet use

This study is a secondary analysis of data collected from four web-based focus groups of nurses and computer scientists who were frequent Internet users. Our aim in this secondary study was to examine gender differences and shared practices in the interpretation of narratives when using this technology. We found that women have different values than men when using the Internet. We can use this information to inform nurses of the gender values that are reflected in Internet usage to increase their understanding of the potential gender stereotyping practices that occur on a medium that is theoretically bias-free.     

Gender differences in tobacco use among U.S. Special Olympics athletes

Background

The rise in women's tobacco use and subsequent health complications has generated an increase in gender-related tobacco use research. However, no research has examined gender's influence on tobacco use among people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD).

Gender differences in cigarette smoking and quitting in a cohort of young adults.

BACKGROUND. Smoking among young women is associated with a variety of negative health outcomes. Gender specific influences on smoking, quitting and attempting to quit are hypothesized to occur and may have implications for cessation programs. METHODS. Telephone surveys were conducted in a large (n = 6,711) cohort of young men and women (average age 19.2 years) which was first established in 1979 and has been resurveyed several times since then. Questions concerned smoking, successful and unsuccessful attempts to quit, withdrawal symptoms during quit attempts, and concerns about quitting. RESULTS. More women than men reported current smoking (26.5 vs 22.6 percent), but quitting attempts, successful and unsuccessful, were equally common. Withdrawal symptoms were reported equally, except for wanting to eat more than usual and weight gain, both of which were reported more often by women than men. Women smokers reported substantially more concern about weight gain if they quit smoking (57.9 vs 26.3 percent expressing concern). CONCLUSIONS. Targeted programs are needed to address issues of concern to young women smokers, particularly fear of gaining weight.     

Parents' motivational beliefs about their involvement in young children's education

This study sought to assess Turkish parents' motivational beliefs, including their role activity and self-efficacy beliefs about their involvement in young children's education. The impact of demographic characteristics on these motivational beliefs was also explored. Parents' motivational beliefs about their involvement were measured by using the adapted Turkish version of the related Level 1 scales from the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler's parent involvement model. The study was conducted with 374 participants who had a child in first or second grade in elementary school. Moreover, a demographic survey was developed and used as the second instrument. The results suggested that Turkish parents as a group tend to have positive motivational beliefs about their involvement in their young children's education. Multiple linear regression analysis results revealed that parents' monthly family income is the strongest predictor of their beliefs for involvement. It was also found that parents' educational backgrounds influence their self-efficacy beliefs about helping their children succeed in school.     

Self-exempting beliefs about smoking and health: differences between smokers and ex-smokers.

OBJECTIVES. The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of self-exempting or cognitive dissonance-reducing beliefs about smoking and health. Such beliefs may hold important implications for the content and targeting of health promotion campaigns. METHODS. A survey of smokers and ex-smokers was conducted in western Sydney, Australia. Six hypotheses were tested. RESULTS. The principal findings were (1) that 27.9% of smokers and 42.1% of ex-smokers agreed that smokers were more likely than non-smokers to get five smoking-related diseases; (2) that for 11 of 14 beliefs tested, more smokers than ex-smokers agreed to a statistically significant degree; (3) that the median number of such beliefs agreed to by smokers was five, compared with three for ex-smokers; (4) that for only 5 of 14 beliefs was agreement expressed by more precontemplative smokers than smokers contemplating or taking action to quit; (5) that more than one in four smokers, despite agreeing that smokers are more likely than non-smokers to get five diseases, nonetheless maintain a set of self-exempting beliefs. CONCLUSIONS. Fewer smokers than ex-smokers accept that smoking causes disease, and smokers also maintain more self-exempting beliefs. Becoming an ex-smoker appears to involve shedding such beliefs in addition to accepting information about the diseases caused by smoking.     

Practitioners beware: regional differences in beliefs about nutrition during pregnancy

We surveyed 1,771 members of The American Dietetic Association, who worked in general nutrition, pediatrics, and public health nutrition, about their clients' beliefs about nutrition during pregnancy. The practitioners were chosen because they likely served pregnant women and/or women with young children. Items for the belief inventory were generated by surveying the beliefs of pregnant and nonpregnant adolescents and their families, teachers, and peers as well as by collecting beliefs heard from clients of social workers, nurses, and dietitians residing in the state of Tennessee. Using a modified q-sort, 26 statements were developed to survey dietitians practicing nationwide. Results indicate that beliefs about physiological needs during pregnancy, practices related to a healthy baby, and beverage recommendations were not significantly different across the regions designated by US Public Health Services (Standard Federal Administrative Regions). However, beliefs about cravings and folklore showed strong regional differences, with the Southeast regions and adjacent states differing significantly from other regions. The majority of beliefs are not supported by scientific information, and results support the need for each region to identify beliefs that could influence dietary patterns (eg, eating for two, eating only a few selected foods, restricting salt, taking vitamins to overcome an inadequate diet, and deciding pregnancy is a good time to lose weight). We recommend that dietetic practitioners become aware of clients' beliefs, support beliefs that are accurate according to current recommendations for pregnancy, and counsel clients about beliefs that are potentially detrimental to good nutrition during pregnancy.     

Gender differences in trajectories of depressive symptomatology and substance use during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood

This study examines gender differences in the association between symptoms of depression and substance use during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Data are from three waves of the US-based National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n=10,828). Results from latent growth curve analysis demonstrate that the association between depressive symptomatology and substance use is bi-directional. Adolescents who are initially more depressed begin the study period with substantially higher levels of substance use than their better-adjusted peers, yet they are less vulnerable to increases in smoking (girls only), binge drinking (girls and boys), and illicit drug use (girls only) across the transition to young adulthood. Also, adolescents who start out with higher than average cigarette, alcohol, and illicit drug use experience a faster rate of decline in symptoms of depression over time compared to those who start out with lower levels of substance use. This association appears to be more pronounced for girls than for boys. Despite their faster rate of decline in depressive symptoms, girls and boys who have higher initial levels of substance use report higher levels of depressive symptomatology at all three time points.