Tobacco dependence, restraint and time to the first cigarette of the day

The number of minutes it takes for a smoker to have the first cigarette of the day is discussed as a useful, subject-classifying variable. Other researchers have proposed that almost all smokers are dependent (on nicotine) and that those who behave as if they are not (e.g., by not smoking immediately in the morning) are actively restraining their cigarette intake. Study 1 shows that many smokers who delay their smoking are not so much restraining themselves from a desired cigarette as they are avoiding an especially noxious one; individual differences in urinary pH do not account for the sensitivity of some smokers to tobacco in the morning. Study 2 indicates that early smokers are more dependent on tobacco than are the later smokers, in that early smokers in a smoking-treatment program are less likely to be able to quit smoking.     

The combined effects of alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking on critical flicker frequency

Previous studies have found that subjects report a raised critical flicker frequency (CFF) threshold after smoking a cigarette and a lowered CFF after drinking a moderate dose of alcohol. The present aim was to examine the joint effects of these two drugs on CFF. Although the changes in CFF were in the expected direction for each drug separately, the combined effects were variable, depending in part on the type of test being used. In a lengthy signal detection task (Experiment I), combining the drugs resulted in antagonism, but with short probe tests (Experiments II and III), the smokers showed little effect for alcohol alone, but decreased threshold if they were allowed to smoke at the same time. Experiment IV examined the effects of both drugs on long and short threshold tests within the same session, essentially confirming the previous findings. Additional pre-drug threshold differences were found between smokers who were required to refrain from smoking overnight before testing and those who were nondeprived.     

Tolerance to ethanol and treatment of its abuse: Some fundamental issues

Although a great deal is known about the phenomenon of alcohol tolerance and its underlying mechanisms, the implications of this knowledge for the development of treatments have yet to be explored. This paper describes some theoretical considerations that must be taken into account in relating tolerance to the treatment enterprise. An appreciation of the distinction between problems of acute intoxication and the pathophysiological consequences of inveterate drinking is critical.     

Social influences on alcohol consumption by black and white males

Thirty-two black and 32 white male normal drinkers participated in a beer taste test either simultaneously (co-action condition) with a heavy drinking black or white experimental accomplice or white the accomplice completed an art rating task (control observer condition). Subjects in the co-action condition drank significantly more beer (p < .001) than subjects in the control observer condition, regardless of their race or the race of the accomplice. Subjects' post-experimental questionnaire answers indicated they did not perceive themselves to be in competition with the accomplice. The mechanism underlying the robust co-action facilitation effect on drinking, now demonstrated in several studies and extended to black males in the present study, remains unexplained.     

The role of Pavlovian processes in drug tolerance and dependence: Implications for treatment

Evidence for the crucial role of Pavlovian conditional compensatory responses in tolerance to opiates and alcohol is presented. Furthermore, an analysis of the motivational role of Pavlovian conditional compensatory responses to craving and relapse is discussed, and supportive experimental and epidemiological evidence are presented. Given the role ascribed to Pavlovian processes in tolerance, craving, and relapse, it is proposed that extinction of cues which elicit conditional compensatory responses is an essential factor for treatment. Additionally, it is suggested that by virtue of prior Pavlovian conditioning, stress and depression may serve as cues to elicit conditional compensatory responses and attendant craving and these cues can also be extinguished by Pavlovian procedures. Finally, it is suggested that explication of this conditioning analysis to the patient may itself be an important cognitive adjunct to treatment.     

Pharmacological control of alcohol consumption: Tactics for the identification and testing of new drugs

Drugs are frequently used with the expectation of decreasing alcohol consumption. The most commonly prescribed agents are the aversive drugs (e.g., disulfiram, calcium carbimide), which when ingested prior to alcohol produce an unpleasant physiologic reaction, which is supposed to deter further drinking. However, in spite of their introduction more than 30 years ago, the very few randomized controlled trials have yielded inconclusive results about their efficacy. Therefore, a search for new agents has led to several studies in animal models of alcohol consumption. Even though many substances have been tested, and presumably could be effective, some inherent methodological problems cast doubts about the relevance of these studies. The most notorious deficiency is that the animals usually drink ethanol below their metabolic capacity and thus do not achieve intoxicating blood levels. Potentially useful agents can be detected if new drugs are systematically tested for effects on alcohol consumption in appropriate animal models. Subsequently, the efficacy and safety of these drugs must be assessed according to the classic four phases of human pharmacology. Claims of efficacy must be supported by randomized controlled trials. A better knowledge of the neurochemical basis of alcohol consumption should lead to the identification of more specific and active pharmacologic treatments.     

Predictors of treatment outcome for alcoholics treated by individualized behavior therapy

Predictors of abstinent and controlled drinking outcomes were investigated for 69 male alcoholics who had participated in a study of individualized behavior therapy for alcoholics. Percent of days abstinent 19–24 mos following treatment and a measure reflecting control over drinking (Controlled Drinking Index) during that same interval were regressed on 3 posttreatment, 3 within-treatment and 7 pretreatment variables. These analyses suggested that drinking outcomes stabilize between 1 and 2 years following treatment and revealed that drinking behavior during the 6 mos preceding the criterion outcome interval was the best predictor of both outcomes. While a strong relationship was found between a controlled drinking treatment goal and controlled drinking outcomes, treatment goal was not related to abstinent outcomes. Total pretreatment alcohol-related hospitalizations were negatively related to controlled drinking outcomes. The contributions of these findings to an understanding of Client X Treatment X Outcome interactions are discussed.     

Treatment of substance abuse by relaxation training: a review of its rationale, efficacy and mechanisms

The efficacy of relaxation training as a treatment for alcohol and drug abuse is reviewed, and directions for future research derived. Such use of relaxation procedures, notably progressive muscular relaxation and meditation, has been widespread and is premised on the assumptions that substance abuse is causally linked to anxiety and that anxiety can be reduced by relaxation training. However, the evidence suggests that such precipitating anxiety is limited to interpersonal-stress situations involving diminished perceived personal control over the stressor, and that alcohol and other drugs are often consumed for their euphoric rather than tranquilizing effects. Consequently, the empirical support for the effectiveness of relaxation training as a treatment for substance abuse in general is equivocal. As well, the existing outcome studies suffer from numerous methodological and conceptual inadequacies. In cases of demonstrated effectiveness, increased perceived control is a more plausible explanation than is decreased anxiety.     

Comparison of two techniques to obtain retrospective reports of drinking behavior from alcohol abusers

Two different interview techniques, used to obtain retrospective reports of daily drinking behavior from alcohol abusers, were empirically evaluated for degree of consistency. Fifteen male alcohol abusers receiving outpatient treatment for alcohol problems participated in two different studies: an alcohol treatment outcome study conducted by the Rand Corporation, and an evaluation of the reliability and validity of a time-line follow-back interview technique. The degree of consistency of self-reports of certain demographic information as well as drinking and related behaviors occuring 30 days pretreatment was evaluated. Correlational and scatterplot analyses showed a moderate to high degree of agreement between the two data sources, lending confidence to the information obtained from each of the interview methods. Limits on the generalizability of these findings are discussed.     

Alcohol and drug use by alcohol and drug abusers when incarcerated: Clinical and research implications

Alcohol (n = 24) and drug (n = 60) abusers reported frequent alcohol and/or drug use while incarcerated in hospitals, jails, and residential treatment programs. Although substance use by addicts while incarcerated may be a “well-known” clinical phenomenon, there are virtually no published data regarding the range and frequencies of such behaviors. The clinical and research implications of frequent drug and alcohol use by alcohol and drug abusers when incarcerated are discussed.     

Non-use and cessation of cannabis use: neglected foci of drug education

Analysis of responses from a large sample of students (grades 7-13) indicated that a large proportion of students reported never having tried cannabis, and the majority of those who had tried the drug reported no longer using it. Multivariate analyses, employing Multiple Classification Analysis procedures, identified those variables most strongly associated with initially trying cannabis and with discontinuing its use. These results indicated that some variables had a similar relationship to these two aspects of cannabis use, but other variables were related exclusively either to trying cannabis or to continuing its use. Implications for education and other preventive interventions are highlighted.     

Reliability of self-reports of low ethanol consumption by problem drinkers over 18 months of follow-up

Forty-eight male problem drinkers participating in an 18-month prospective evaluation of an outpatient alcohol treatment program were interviewed monthly about their drinking and related behaviors; their collateral informants were interviewed every two months during this same period to corroborate the subjects' self-reports. A high degree of consistency was found between subjects' and collaterals' reports of the subjects' drinking behavior, including days of low ethanol consumption. These results indicate that subjects' drinking behavior can be precisely and reliably assessed over a long interval. The finding that reliable self-reports of low ethanol consumption can be obtained from problem drinkers participating in an outcome evaluation study is important, since nonproblem drinking is gaining acceptance as an achievable treatment goal for some alcohol abusers.     

Psychophysiological variables in cigarette smoking and reinforcing effects of nicotine.

Studies of psychophysiological changes associated with cigarette smoking are reviewed. These changes are in the direction of increased metabolic activation and appear to be mediated by nicotine. The proposal is made that smoking behavior may be maintained by reinforcing effects of general autonomic activation following smoking. The importance of identification of those who smoke for physiological vs social factors is discussed in relation to the development of effective programs to treat smoking behavior.     

Comparison of satiation and rapid smoking in self-managed smoking cessation

Two aversive oversmoking procedures, satiation and rapid smoking, were contrasted in the context of a self-management training, smoking cessation program developed for public health utilization. Sixty male and female smokers from the community were assigned to satiation only, rapid smoking only, and satiation plus rapid smoking conditions. All subjects received self-management training in addition to oversmoking procedures.The experimental conditions were found to be equally efficacious, producing an overall 47% abstinence at 6-month follow-up. Initially lighter smokers were significantly more successful than heavier smokers. Results were taken to support the use of take-home versions of oversmoking techniques, when combined with self-management training, and a potential for effective public health and preventive medical implementation.     

Influence of phystcochemical interactions on the properties of suppositories IV. Factors influencing the in vivo release of ketoprofen and metronidazole from fatty suppository bases

The advantages and disadvantages of animal models employed for the testing of suppositories in vivo are discussed and the rat has been selected for the present work. Some of the important variables involved in these tests have been investigated using fatty suppositories consisting of binary mixtures of pure mono-acid triglycerides. The drugs employed, ketoprofen and metronidazole, give solution and suspension suppositories, respectively. Using Kendall's method of rank correlation, the bioavailability of ketoprofen or metronidazole has been found to correlate significantly with the rate of spreading of fatty suppositories but not with the plastic viscosity of the base, determined in a rotational viscometer. Accurate prediction of the plots of drug plasma levels vs time from individual mean data points from a number of rats is found to be difficult as reflected by the wide 95% confidence limits. The main use of such plots is to indicate trends. The highest blood level profiles for both the solution and suspension suppositories are found to be given by formulations containing the binary triglyceride mixture consisting of 60% w/w tricaprin and 40% w/w trilaurin as constituents of the base.     

Expired air carbon monoxide and saliva thiocyanate: Relationships to self-reports of marijuana and cigarette smoking

This study examined the relationship between self-reports of marijuana and cigarette smoking, and the psysiological measures of expired air carbon monoxide (CO) and saliva thiocyanate (SCN) in a sample of 1,130 seventh, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth graders. Subjects who reported marijuana smoking were likely to also report cigarette smoking. The correlation between self-reported marijuana smoking and SCN was negligible. The correlation between CO and self-reported marijuana smoking was statistically significant, but when the variance due to cigarette smoking was removed, this relationship also became negligible. The existence of a sizeable number of marijuana smokers in this sample of adolescents did not alter the correlation between CO and self-reports of cigarette smoking. However, in adult samples, where marijuana and cigarette smoking are less highly correlated, marijuana smoking could affect the relationship between CO and self-reported cigarette smoking. Carbon monoxide predicted self-reported cigarette smoking better than did saliva thiocyanate. There was an interaction between grade and the CO/cigarette smoking correlation. The correlations were generally higher in upper grades.     

A synthetic method for determining the solubility of solids in viscous liquids

Measurement of the solubility of a solid in a viscous liquid at a predetermined temperature using an analytical method poses problems on account of the difficulty of removing excess of the suspended solid from the viscous solution at constant temperature. As an alternative, a simple synthetic method is proposed involving measurement of the temperature at which a stirred solute-solvent mixture of predetermined composition just forms a homogeneous solution. By means of this the equilibrium solubility temperature can be quickly bracketted to 1°C. From the solubility-temperature data thus obtained, ΔG, ΔH and ΔS for the solution process may be readily calculated. Furthermore, physicochemical interactions between a solid drug and a molten excipient may be studied at regions of composition in which other thermal methods of analysis may not be suitable.     

The effect of phenobarbital and carbon tetrachloride on fatty acid content and composition of phospholipids from the endoplasmic reticulum of rat liver

The fatty acid content and composition of hepatic microsomes of separated smooth and rough components and of isolated phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine fractions were studied in male albino rats treated with phenobarbital or carbon tetrachloride. Both test compounds significantly altered the fatty acid composition of the endoplasmic reticulum. The total amount was significantly raised by phenobarbital and reduced by carbon tetrachloride. Phenobarbital enhanced palmitic, stearic, arachidic, palmitoleic, linoleic, eicosenoic, eicosadienoic, eicosatrienoic, eicosapentenoic, docosatrienoic, and docosahexenoic acids. Carbon tetrachloride diminished all these, excluding palmitic and palmitoleic acids. The fatty acid content of rough microsomes was significantly increased by phenobarbital and decreased by carbon tetrachloride, while in smooth microsomes fatty acids were raised by phenobarbital but mainly unaffected by carbon tetrachloride. In microsomal phosphatidylcholine fractions, phenobarbital significantly elevated oleic, linoleic, eicosatrienoic, arachidonic, eicosapentenoic, docosapentenoic, and docosahexenoic acids, whereas all these were significantly reduced with carbon tetrachloride. In phosphatidylethanolamine fractions, phenobarbital increased palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidonic acids; carbon tetrachloride elicited opposite effects on these acids. Phenobarbital increased and carbon tetrachloride reduced the fatty acid content in the phosphatidylcholine fraction of rough membranes. Opposite effects were seen in oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, and eicosapentenoic acids. Both test compounds brought about similar changes in the fatty acid composition of the phosphatidylethanolamine fractions of rough microsomes. In smooth microsomes, phosphatidylcholine fatty acids were significantly enhanced by phenobarbital and reduced by carbon tetrachloride. The fatty acid content of phosphatidylethanolamine was increased by phenobarbital, mainly manifesting in palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, docosapentenoic, and docosahexenoic acids. Carbon tetrachloride elicited no major change in this fraction. Phenobarbital increased the production of unsaturated fatty acids, whereas carbon tetrachloride elevated the relative amount of saturated fatty acids. The saturated/unsaturated fatty acids ratio was reduced by phenobarbital and increased by carbon tetrachloride, and thus may indicate a selective difference between an inducer and hepatotoxin on fatty acid synthesis of the hepatic endoplasmic reticulum.     

Alveolar carbon monoxide: The relative contributions of daily cigarette rate,cigarette brand,and smoking topography

This study attempted to comprehensively assess the factors which impact upon the alveolar carbon monoxide (CO) levels of smokers. Baseline measures of alveolar carbon monoxide (CO), daily cigarette rate, the CO yield of the brand of cigarette smoked, and smoking topography were obtained from 60 individuals enrolled in a stop smoking clinic. The results indicated that two topography measures, i.e., the interpuff interval (p < .01) and cigarette duration (p < .05), the amount of time since the last cigarette (p < .05), and a self-rated estimate of depth of inhalation (p < .05) were significantly correlated with alveolar CO. A forward stepwise multiple regression analysis also yielded a three variable equation (interpuff interval, the CO yield of the brand of cigarette smoked, and daily cigarette rate) which was highly predictive of alveolar CO (p < .001) and accounted for 36% of the total variance. These results support the arguments of Frederiksen and Martin (1979) that the CO levels of smokers are determined by a variety of factors in addition to daily cigarette rate.