Apoptotic cell death in the response of D-galactosamine-sensitized mice to lipopolysaccharide as an experimental endotoxic shock model.

The apoptotic cell death induced in D-galactosamine-sensitized mice by administration of lipopolysaccharide was characterized. Administration of lipopolysaccharide caused apoptotic cell death in livers of D-galactosamine-sensitized mice. Apoptotic cells were also detected in the kidney, thymus, spleen, and lymph node. Severe hepatic apoptosis in D-galactosamine-sensitized mice was reproduced by transfer of the sera from mice injected with D-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide. The hepatocyte apoptosis induced by lipopolysaccharide was completely prevented by an anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha antibody but not by an anti-gamma interferon antibody. Administration of recombinant tumor necrosis factor into D-galactosamine-sensitized mice also caused hepatocyte apoptosis. Lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatocyte apoptosis in D-galactosamine-sensitized mice did not seem to be mediated by Fas antigen. It was suggested that lipopolysaccharide- induced hepatic injury and failure in D-galactosamine-sensitized mice was due to the apoptotic cell death of hepatocytes caused by tumor necrosis factor alpha released in the circulation.     

Sulfiredoxin protects mice from lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxic shock

Peroxiredoxins constitute a major family of cysteine-based peroxide-scavenging enzymes. They carry an intriguing redox switch by undergoing substrate-mediated inactivation via overoxidation of their catalytic cysteine to the sulfinic acid form that is reverted by reduction catalyzed by the sulfinic acid reductase sulfiredoxin (Srx). The biological significance of such inactivation is not understood, nor is the function of Srx1. To address this question, we generated a mouse line with a null deletion of the Srx1-encoding Srxn1 gene. We show here that Srxn1(-/-) mice are perfectly viable and do not suffer from any apparent defects under laboratory conditions, but have an abnormal response to lipopolysaccharide that manifests by increased mortality during endotoxic shock. Microarray-based mRNA profiles show that although the response of Srxn1(-/-) mice to lipopolysaccharide is typical, spanning all spectrum and all pathways of innate immunity, it is delayed by several hours and remains intense when the response of Srxn1(+/+) mice has already dissipated. These data indicate that Srx1 activity protects mice from the lethality of endotoxic shock, adding this enzyme to other host factors, as NRF2 and peroxiredoxin 2, which by regulating cellular reactive oxygen species levels act as important modifiers in the pathogenesis of sepsis.     

Lethal endotoxic shock using alpha-galactosylceramide sensitization as a new experimental model of septic shock

The effect of alpha-galactosylceramide (alpha-GalCer) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated lethality was examined. Administration of LPS killed all mice pretreated with alpha-GalCer, but not untreated control mice. The lethal shock in alpha-GalCer-sensitized mice was accompanied by severe pulmonary lesions with marked infiltration of inflammatory cells and massive cell death. On the other hand, hepatic lesions were focal and mild. A number of cells in pulmonary and hepatic lesions underwent apoptotic cell death. alpha-GalCer sensitization was ineffective for the development of the systemic lethal shock in Valpha14-positive natural killer T cell-deficient mice. Sensitization with alpha-GalCer led to the circulation of a high level of interferon (IFN)-gamma and further augmented the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha in response to LPS. The lethal shock was abolished by the administration of anti-IFN-gamma or TNF-alpha antibody. Further, the lethal shock did not occur in TNF-alpha-deficient mice. Taken together, alpha-GalCer sensitization rendered mice very susceptible to LPS-mediated lethal shock, and IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha were found to play a critical role in the preparation and execution of the systemic lethal shock, respectively. The LPS-mediated lethal shock using alpha-GalCer sensitization might be useful for researchers employing experimental models of sepsis and septic shock.     

Role of nitric oxide in anaphylactic shock

Nitric oxide, synthesized from the guanidino group ofl-arginine by nitric oxide synthase, has an important role in pathophysiological changes associated with anaphylaxis. Nitric oxide production due to activation of constitutive nitric oxide synthase is detected using a nitric oxide-selective electrode in anaphylactic rabbitsin vivo. A nitric oxide synthase inhibitor attenuates hypotension and hemoconcentration and decreases venous return but does not improve cardiac depression. Nitric oxide functionally antagonizes the effects of vasoconstrictors released by anaphylaxisin vitro. In animals pretreated with a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, the cardiac output falls significantly, although venous return is increased. Pulmonary resistance is significantly increased with a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, andl-arginine attenuates the bronchospasm. These findings suggest that production of nitric oxide may reduce the pathophysiologic changes, except for vasodilatation, associated with anaphylaxis.     

钨对大鼠内毒素休克时肝损伤的影响

本文主要探讨钨对大鼠内毒素休克时肝损伤的作用及机制。实验表明,用钨预处理的大鼠能明显减轻内毒素休克时血压、外周血中白细胞总数及PMN%的下降;增加动物生存率。与内毒素组比较,血浆MDA、SGPT、肝MDA与黄嘌呤氧化酶(XO)活性均显著降低,肝钨/钼值增大(P<0.05或0.01);光镜亦示肝病变轻微。以上结果提示:钨对大鼠内毒素休克所致肝损伤有明显保护作用,其机制可能与钨抑制XO,使氧自由基产生减少有关。     

Tim-3 signaling pathway as a novel negative mediator in lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxic shock

Sepsis is a complex clinical condition caused by a dysregulated immune response to an infection. However, the mechanism by which our immune system controls this amplified inflammation is largely unknown. In this study, we investigated whether Tim-3 pathway could serve as a negative mediator in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxic shock. Our results showed that Tim-3 was expressed on CD4⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells, and NK cells, and was significantly increased in the peritoneal cavity of septic mice. Tim-3 acted as a marker of immune exhaustion and Tim-3-positive T cells and NK cells had a lower interferon (IFN)-γ production. Furthermore, blockade of Tim-3 pathway significantly accelerated mortality in septic mice, while activation of this pathway prolonged survival time. In vitro administration of Tim-3 blocking antibody restored the release of IFN-γ from splenocytes and decreased splenocyte apoptosis, and increased levels of IFN-γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were also detected in septic mice at 24 h post in vivo administration of the antibody. In contrast, activation of Tim-3 pathway prevented cell proliferation. Thus, Tim-3 signaling pathway acts as a novel negative mediator in LPS-induced endotoxic shock and could be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of sepsis.     

Release of nitric oxide during experimental trichinellosis in mice

Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the secretory products of macrophages. Abundant evidence indicates that NO contributes to the host defence functions of these cells. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the induced form of NO synthase (iNOS) may participate in the defence of the host against Trichinella. To investigate whether NO was produced during trichinellosis, we examined NO serum levels as an indicator of NO production by iNOS in mice infected with T. spiralis. A statistically significant increase in the NO serum levels relative to the control group (uninfected animals) was observed during weeks 2-8 post-infection. This increase suggest that iNOS is induced during experimental trichinellosis in mice. In the next stage of our study, we compared the NO synthesis by peritoneal macrophages isolated from infected mice with those from uninfected control. A statistically significant increase in the NO release from macrophages obtained from infected mice was noticed on days 7, 21, 29, 43 and 63 post-infection. These results suggest that infection with T. spiralis induces NO production by macrophages.     

Autoregulative function in the brain in an endotoxic rat shock model

Objective and design:  Autoregulative function in the brain gets relevant in hypodynamic conditions of a sepsis syndrome. We investigated the temporal pattern and dose dependent effects of LPS-induced shock on autoregulative function in rats. Material and subjects:  Chloralose-anesthetized and mechanically ventilated male CD-rats (n = 30). Treatment:  Animals were subjected to vehicle, 1 or 5 mg/kg b.w. lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from E. coli given intravenously. Methods:  Autoregulative function was tested repeatedly with a carotid compression technique assessing the transient hyperemic response ratio (THRR) in the cortex with laser Doppler flowmetry up to 270 min. THRR data from exsanguination experiments served as controls. Results:  Despite lower blood pressure levels in the high dose group (control: 114 ± 7 mmHg; 1 mg/kg LPS group: 82 ± 16 mmHg; 5 mg/kg LPS group: 62 ± 16 mmHg; p < 0.05) progressive cerebral hyperemia occurred similarly in both groups. Compared to exsanguinations experiments autoregulative compensation for lower blood pressure levels was lacking in the high LPS dose group at the end of experiments. Conclusions:  Cerebral autoregulation was affected by LPS-induced shock supporting the notion of vasoregulative failure in endotoxic shock Received 22 October 2007; returned for revision 20 February 2008; received from final revision 23 May 2008; accepted by K. Visvanathan 8 July 2008     

正正常肠淋巴液对内毒素休克小鼠多器官损伤的作用*

 目的： 观察正常肠淋巴液对内毒素休克小鼠肺、心、肝等器官损伤以及MAPK信号通路主要信号分子p38 MAPK、ERK1/2和JNK磷酸化水平的影响。方法: 引流18只BALB/c雄性小鼠正常肠淋巴液,去除细胞成分后用于内毒素休克的干预。18只小鼠均分为假休克组、内毒素休克组与肠淋巴液干预组（n=6）;腹腔注射脂多糖（LPS,35 mg/kg）,复制小鼠内毒素休克模型;在LPS注射60 min后,淋巴液干预组小鼠经股动脉注射正常淋巴液（全血量的1/15）;整个实验过程监测平均动脉血压（MAP）;在腹腔注射LPS后6 h或相应时点,心尖穿刺取血,检测反映心肌和肝细胞损伤的生化指标;同时,留取固定位置的肺、心肌和肝组织,部分观察组织形态,部分检测p38 MAPK、ERK1/2和JNK的磷酸化水平。结果: 内毒素休克组与肠淋巴液干预组小鼠在腹腔注射LPS后90 min多个时点的MAP显著低于假休克组,肠淋巴液干预组小鼠MAP在腹腔注射LPS后80 min、90 min、190 min、210 min、240 min、250 min、340 min、350 min和360 min显著高于内毒素休克组。假休克组小鼠肺、肝和心肌组织结构基本正常,内毒素休克组小鼠出现了一定的结构损伤,肠淋巴液干预组小鼠组织损伤较轻;内毒素休克组小鼠血浆AST、ALT和CK-MB活性高于假休克组,肠淋巴液干预组小鼠血浆CK-MB活性亦高于假休克组,AST和LDH-1活性低于内毒素休克组。注射LPS后6 h,小鼠肺组织p38 MAPK、ERK 1/2和JNK的磷酸化水平显著升高,心肌和肝组织的这些指标未见显著变化;输入正常肠淋巴液降低了内毒素休克小鼠肺组织p38 MAPK以及心肌组织p38 MAPK、ERK 1/2和JNK磷酸化水平。结论: 输入正常肠淋巴液可减轻内毒素休克小鼠的器官损伤,降低肺组织p38 MAPK磷酸化水平。     

Role of nitric oxide in pheromone-mediated intraspecific communication in mice

Nitric oxide is known to take part in the control of sexual and agonistic behaviours. This is usually attributed to its role in neural transmission in the hypothalamus and other structures of the limbic system. However, socio-sexual behaviours in rodents are mainly directed by chemical signals detected by the vomeronasal system, and nitric oxide is abundant in key structures along the vomeronasal pathway. Thus, here we check whether pharmacological treatments interfering with nitrergic transmission could affect socio-sexual behaviour by impairing the processing of chemical signals. Treatment with an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis (Nω-Nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride, L-NAME, 100 mg/kg) blocks the innate preference displayed by female mice for sexual pheromones contained in male-soiled bedding, with a lower dose of the drug (50 mg/kg) having no effect. Animals treated with the high dose of L-NAME show no reduction of olfactory discrimination of male urine in a habituation-dishabituation test, thus suggesting that the effect of the drug on the preference for male pheromones is not due to an inability to detect male urine. Alternatively, it may result from an alteration in processing the reinforcing value of pheromones as sexual signals. These results add a new piece of evidence to our understanding of the neurochemistry of intraspecific chemical communication in rodents, and suggest that the role of nitric oxide in socio-sexual behaviours should be re-evaluated taking into account the involvement of this neuromodulator in the processing of chemical signals.     

Vasopressin release during endotoxaemic shock in mice lacking inducible nitric oxide synthase

We tested the hypothesis that nitric oxide (NO) arising from the action of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is responsible for the deficiency in vasopressin (AVP) release and consequent hypotension during endotoxaemic shock. Wild-type (WT) and iNOS knockout mice (iNOS^–/–) were given either saline or Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1.0 mg/kg i.v., final volume 0.03 ml). Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was measured and plasma AVP levels determined before and after LPS or saline injection. In WT mice, MAP was significantly lower 2 h after LPS administration and remained low for the remainder of the 6-h observation period. AVP plasma levels were increased at the 2nd and 4th h of the experiment, returning thereafter to basal levels. Conversely, LPS injection in iNOS iNOS^–/– mice elicited a sustained increase in plasma AVP concentration and attenuated the fall in blood pressure. These data indicate that NO arising from the iNOS plays an important inhibitory role in AVP release during endotoxaemia and may be responsible for the hypotension occurring during this vasodilatory shock.     

Role of nitric oxide in thermoregulation during septic shock: involvement of vasopressin

We tested the hypothesis that the nitric oxide (NO) pathway in the central nervous system (CNS) plays a role in hypothermia, as well as in the febrile response during experimental septic shock, by regulating vasopressin (AVP) release. Experiments were performed on male Wistar rats treated with N ^G-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), a non-selective NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor, injected intracerebroventricularly (250 µg/1 l) 30 min before lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 1.5 mg/kg i.v. injection. One hour after LPS administration we observed a significant drop in body temperature (hypothermic response), followed by a temperature increase after the second hour (febrile response), which remained until the end of the experiment. Increased plasmatic AVP levels were concomitantly observed during hypothermia, nearly returning to basal levels during the febrile phase. When l-NAME was administered with LPS, plasmatic AVP concentrations remained high throughout the experiment, hypothermia was accentuated and the febrile response was abolished. Additionally, pre-treatment with -mercapto-,-cyclopentamethylenepropionyl¹, O-Et-Tyr², Val⁴, Arg⁸-vasopressin, an AVP V1 receptor blocker (10 µg/kg) administered i.v., reduced hypothermia and exacerbated the febrile response to endotoxin. In conclusion, our data indicate that the central NO pathway plays an inhibitory role in AVP release during experimental septic shock, which seems to be critical for the thermoregulation during this pathophysiological state.     

Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the pathogenesis of experimental leptospirosis

Nitric oxide (NO) produced by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is a radical effector molecule of the innate immune system that can directly inhibit pathogen replication. In order to study subsequent iNOS kidney expression in experimental leptospirosis, Golden Syrian hamsters and C3H/HeJ mice were infected intraperitoneally with 10² or 10⁷ virulent Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni (LIC) strain Fiocruz L1-130. Results showed increased levels of iNOS mRNA and protein in kidneys of infected animals when compared to that in mock-infected animals. To get a deeper insight into the role of iNOS in experimental leptospirosis, both subject species were treated or not treated with 4-aminopyridine (4-AP, 0.3 mg/kg), an iNOS inhibitor. Treatment of infected hamsters with 4-AP accelerated the mortality rate to 100% by one day and increased the mortality rate from 20 to 60% in mice at 14 days post-infection. In kidney tissues, 4-AP treatment increased the bacterial burden, as demonstrated through leptospiral DNA quantification by real-time PCR, and aggravated tubulointerstitial nephritis. In addition, iNOS inhibition reduced the specific humoral response against LIC when compared to that in untreated infected animals. According to these results, iNOS expression and the resulting NO have an important role in leptospirosis.     

Role of nasal nitric oxide in the resolution of experimental rhinovirus infection

BACKGROUND: Human rhinovirus (HRV) infections are associated with exacerbations of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and sinusitis. Nitric oxide (NO) might play an important role in host defense through its potent antiviral properties. Previous studies have shown that HRV infection in human subjects increased nasal epithelial expression of type 2 nitric oxide synthase (NOS2), an isoform of the enzyme that produces NO. OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate whether increases in exhaled NO (eNO) would accompany the increased NOS2 expression and would be associated with clearance of the virus. METHODS: Six human subjects were infected with HRV-16 intranasally. eNO from nasal and lower airways was measured by means of direct measurement at multiple controlled flow rates. eNO was monitored at baseline (day 1) and on days 2 to 5, 8, 14, and 42 after infection. Nasal lavages were performed on days 1 to 5 and 8, and nasal scrapings were performed on days 1 to 4. NOS2 mRNA expression in nasal cells was measured by using quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Viral shedding in nasal lavage fluid was monitored by using real-time RT-PCR and bioassay. RESULTS: Peak HRV titers and symptom scores were correlated on day 3, and HRV persisted until day 5 (n=4) or day 8 (n=2). Infection was associated with transient but significant increases in lymphocytes and monocytes in nasal lavage fluid. Significant increases in both nasal and lower airway eNO concentrations accompanied HRV infection and were positively correlated. Increased nasal eNO concentrations on day 3 were associated with increased expression of NOS2 mRNA in nasal scrapings. Symptom scores on day 4 were inversely correlated with the increases in nasal eNO concentration. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that increased production of NO occurs as part of the host response to HRV infection and speculate that NO plays a beneficial role in viral clearance.     

Role of endothelial nitric oxide synthetase in arteriogenesis after stroke in mice

Arteriogenesis supports restored perfusion in the ischemic brain and improves long-term functional outcome after stroke. We investigate the role of endothelial nitric oxide synthetase (eNOS) and a nitric oxide (NO) donor, (Z)-1-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-N-(2-ammonioethyl) amino] diazen-1-ium-1, 2-diolate (DETA-NONOate), in promoting arteriogenesis after stroke. Adult wild-type (WT, n=18) and eNOS-knockout (eNOS^−/−, n=36) mice were subjected to transient (2.5 h) right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) and were treated with or without DETA-NONOate (0.4 mg/kg) 24 h after MCAo. Functional evaluation was performed. Animals were sacrificed 3 days after MCAo for arterial cell culture studies, or 14 days for immunohistochemical analysis. Consistent with previous studies, eNOS^−/− mice exhibited a higher mortality rate (P<0.05, n=18/group) and more severe neurological functional deficit after MCAo than WT mice (P<0.05, n=12/group). Decreased arteriogenesis, was evident in eNOS^−/− mice compared with WT mice, as demonstrated by reduced vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation, arterial density and diameter in the ischemic brain. eNOS^−/− mice treated with DETA-NONOate had a significantly decreased mortality rate and improved functional recovery, and exhibited enhanced arteriogenesis identified by increased VSMC proliferation, and upregulated arterial density and diameter compared to eNOS^−/− mice after stroke (P<0.05, n=12/group). To elucidate the mechanisms underlying eNOS/NO mediated arteriogenesis, VSMC migration was measured in vitro. Arterial cell migration significantly decreased in the cultured common carotid artery (CCA) derived from eNOS^−/− mice 3 days after MCAo compared to WT arterial cells. DETA-NONOate-treatment significantly attenuated eNOS^−/−-induced decrease of arterial cell migration compared to eNOS^−/− control artery (P<0.05; n=6/group). Using VSMC culture, DETA-NONOate significantly increased VSMC migration, while inhibition of NOS significantly decreased VSMC migration (P<0.05; n=6/group). Our data indicated that eNOS not only promotes vascular dilation but also increases VSMC proliferation and migration, and thereby enhances arteriogenesis after stroke. Therefore, increase eNOS may play an important role in regulating of arteriogenesis after stroke.     

NO对心脏缺血再灌注损伤的影响及其在缺血预处理中的作用

目的:明确NO对心脏缺血再灌注(IR)损伤的影响及其在缺血预处理(IP)保护机制中的作用,同时观察NO对缺血再灌注凋亡的影响。方法:使用在体大鼠心脏缺血再灌注模型,实验共分为6组:IR组,IR+L-arg组,IR+L-NAME组,IP组,IP+L-arg组,IP+L-NAME组,观察分析心功能、梗塞面积、中性粒细胞(PMN)计数、心肌髓过氧化物酶(MPO)活性、TUNEL阳性细胞计数等指标。结果:L-arg,L-NAME均明显减轻了IR引起的PMN浸润和心肌细胞凋亡。缺血预处理前给予NO前体L-arg增加NO生成或使用L-NAME阻断NO生成对缺血预处理保护作用无明显影响。结论:缺血前组予L-arg增加内源性NO生成可对心肌缺血再灌注发挥保护作用;组予L-NAME可能通过减少再灌注其ONOO^-的生成而减轻心肌损伤和凋亡。     

Activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase following spinal cord injury in mice

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) plays a neuroprotective role after cerebral ischemia through the production of NO, which enhances cerebral blood flow. However, precise details regarding activation of eNOS after spinal cord injury (SCI) largely remain to be elucidated. In the present study we investigated chronological alteration and cellular location of eNOS and phosphorylated (p)-eNOS at Ser(1177) following SCI in mice. Western blot analysis showed eNOS to be significantly phosphorylated at Ser(1177) from 1 to 2 days after mild SCI, with gradual decrease thereafter. Immunohistochemistry revealed the p-eNOS to be mainly expressed in the endothelial cells of microvessels within gray matter under these conditions. These findings suggest that mild SCI activates eNOS in the subacute stage, which increases spinal cord blood flow and may be involved in protective and repair responses.