Elective oral tracheal intubation in cervical spine-injured adults

There is controversy regarding the optimal mode of elective tracheal intubation in the patient with an unstable cervical spine following trauma. A ten-year review of 150 patients with traumatic cervical spine injuries with well-preserved neurological function, presenting for operative stabilization, was conducted to compare neurological outcome with the mode of tracheal intubation. Preoperative neurological deficits were identified in 49 patients (33%); most were single-level radiculopathies. Intubation occurred after induction of general anaesthesia in 83 patients (55%) and in 67 patients (45%) the tracheas were intubated with the patient awake. One hundred and six patients (71%) underwent oral tracheal intubation and 44 underwent nasal tracheal intubation. Ten intubations were deemed to be difficult requiring more than one attempt to effect intubation. Cervical spine immobilization during intubation was documented in 86 patients (57%). Weighted traction or manual in-line traction were the two manoeuvres most commonly employed to maintain spinal alignment during intubation. After surgery, two patients had new neurological deficits. There were no differences in neurological outcome whether intubation was performed while the patient was awake or under general anaesthesia, or comparing oral tracheal intubation with all other techniques (P = 0.5, Fisher exact test). Also, in-line traction did not affect neurological outcome. Oral tracheal intubation with in-line stabilization, either performed after induction of general anaesthesia or with the patient awake, remains an excellent option for elective airway management in patients with cervical spine injuries.     

Unsuspected tracheal rupture in blunt thoracic trauma

The purpose of this report is to describe the discovery and management of an unanticipated injury during fibreoptic tracheal intubation. A 23-yr-old man sustained blunt cervical, thoracic and abdominal trauma in a motor vehicle accident. He was brought to the operating room for urgent management of his abdominal and cervical spine injuries. Examination of his airway during awake fibreoptic tracheal intubation revealed an unexpected tracheal injury. Surgical repair of the trachea was uneventful. The diagnosis and airway management of tracheal rupture are discussed. This case illustrates the importance of a full diagnostic examination during invasive anaesthetic procedures such as tracheal intubation.     

Shikani喉镜与Airtraq喉镜用于颈椎活动受限患者清醒气管插管对比研究

目的 比较Shikani喉镜与Airtraq喉镜清醒气管插管在颈椎手术中的应用效果. 方法 选择ASA分级Ⅰ、Ⅱ级,拟全身麻醉下行前路或后路颈椎内固定术患者60例.按随机数字表法分为Shikani喉镜组(S组)和Airtraq喉镜组(A组),每组30例.记录入室15 min麻醉诱导前(T1)、麻醉诱导后插管前(T2)、插管即刻(T3)、插管后1 min(T4)及插管后3 min(T5)时的MAP、HR、气管插管的成功率、插管时间,评估患者对气管插管的耐受性、配合程度及满意度,观察术后咽喉损伤情况. 结果 与T1比较,A组T3～T5时点MAP升高、HR增快(P＜0.05).A组T3～T5时点MAP高于S组,HR快于S组(P＜0.05).S组插管时间短于A组[(15±4)s比(22±5)s],插管成功率高于A组(100％比90％)(P＜0.05).与A组比较,S组气管插管耐受性及满意度优于A组(P＜0.05),咽喉损伤的发生率也较A组少(P＜0.05). 结论 颈椎手术清醒诱导插管中,与Airtraq喉镜比较,Shikani喉镜可减少气管插管时心血管应激反应,提高插管成功率及患者的舒适度,缩短插管时间,降低咽喉损伤的发生率.     

Awake tracheal intubation through the intubating laryngeal mask airway in a patient with halo traction

PURPOSE: To report a case of awake tracheal intubation through the intubating laryngeal mask airway (ILMA) in a patient with halo traction. Clinical features: A 16-yr-old, 40 kg, boy with atlanto-occipital instability and halo traction was scheduled for surgery under general anesthesia. The head of the patient was fixed in a position of flexion and extension was impossible. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging revealed that pharyngeal and laryngeal axes were aligned, but that the oral axis was in an extreme divergent plane. The tongue and oropharynx were anesthetized with 10% lidocaine spray and bilateral superior laryngeal nerve blockade was performed. Under sedation, awake orotracheal intubation via ILMA was successful. Fibreoptic bronchoscopy has been recommended for awake tracheal intubation in such patients. Other techniques, such as use of the Bullard laryngoscope have been described also but awake tracheal intubation through the ILMA in patients with a halo device in situ has seldom been reported in the medical literature. CONCLUSION: Airway management of patients with cervical spine instability includes adequate preoperative evaluation of the airway and choosing the appropriate intubation technique. We suggest that the ILMA may be an adequate alternative for awake tracheal intubation in patients with an unstable cervical spine and cervical immobilization with a halo device.     

Oral dantrolene and severe respiratory failure in a patient with chronic spinal cord injury

Oral dantrolene is used widely for the treatment of spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury. A 60‐year‐old patient in the rehabilitation phase following cervical spine injury presented with generalised weakness and deteriorating respiratory function, requiring intensive care admission, tracheal intubation and ventilation. He had bilateral basal lung collapse and a raised diaphragm and was on high‐dose oral dantrolene. The cessation of dantrolene resulted in a dramatic recovery of respiratory function within two days. High‐dose oral dantrolene can cause severe respiratory insufficiency and may present difficulties in the differential diagnosis of respiratory failure in patients with high cervical spinal cord injuries.     

Use of the intubating laryngeal mask airway to facilitate awake orotracheal intubation in patients with cervical spine disorders.

Airway management in patients with unstable cervical spines remains a challenge for anesthesia providers. Because neurologic evaluations may be required following tracheal intubation and positioning for the surgical procedure, an awake intubation technique is desirable in this patient population. In this report, we describe the use of an intubating laryngeal mask airway (ILMA) to facilitate awake tracheal intubation in two patients with cervical spine disorders. After topical local analgesia, the ILMA was inserted easily, and a tracheal tube was passed through the glottic opening without complications. Thus, the ILMA may be an acceptable alternative to the fiberoptic bronchoscope for awake tracheal intubation.     

Diving injuries of the cervical spine in amateur divers.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Diving injuries are the cause of potentially devastating trauma, primarily affecting the cervical spine. PURPOSE: Our purpose was to describe our experience with diving injuries treatment. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review. PATIENT SAMPLE: Twenty patients with diving injuries. OUTCOME MEASURES: Using the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) impairment scales as the primary outcome measure, the patients' neurological status before and after treatment was assessed. In this way we were able to draw conclusions about neurological improvement or deterioration in response to conservative or operative treatment. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 20 patients with diving injuries of the cervical spine who were admitted to our institute over a 34-year period from 1970 until 2004. RESULTS: The typical patient profile was of a young, healthy, athletic male who suffered an injury to the cervical spine after diving into shallow water. The number of cases corresponds to 2.6% of all admitted cervical spine injuries. All injures occurred between May and September. The most commonly fractured vertebrae were C5 and C6. Four patients were treated operatively and 16 conservatively. The indications for surgical treatment were posttraumatic instability and persistent neurological deficit. The mean follow-up of the patients was 17 years. Five patients died within the first month of their hospitalization and 1 patient died 1 year after his injury. Of the 14 patients who were available for follow-up 5 years past injury time, 6 improved neurologically and 8 remained unchanged in relation to their neurology upon admission. Of the 11 patients who were available for follow-up 10 years past injury time, 9 remained neurologically unchanged, 1 deteriorated, and 1 improved in relation to their neurology in the 5-year follow-up. CONCLUSION: Diving injuries of the cervical spine demonstrate high mortality and morbidity rates. Recovery depends on the severity of the initial neurological damage. Conservative treatment is justified in specific patients and can lead to improvement of the initial neurological deficit.     

不同靶控浓度瑞芬太尼联合右美托咪定用于颈椎手术麻醉中经鼻清醒气管插管效果的比较

目的观察不同靶控浓度瑞芬太尼联合右美托咪定用于颈椎手术麻醉经鼻清醒气管插管的安全性和有效性,探讨临床适宜的瑞芬太尼靶控浓度。方法选择择期在全身麻醉下行颈椎手术患者60例,男40例,女20例,年龄18~68岁,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,按瑞芬太尼靶控浓度不同随机分为三组:A组:瑞芬太尼1.5ng/ml,B组:瑞芬太尼2.0ng/ml,C组:瑞芬太尼2.5ng/ml。三组患者均给予右美托咪定1μg/kg。观察并记录入手术室时(T_1)、插管前(T_2)、气管导管过鼻咽即刻(T_3)、气管导管过声门即刻(T_4)、导管套囊充气即刻(T_5)、导管进入气管后1min(T_6)的MAP、HR、SpO_2、RR;并记录插管时间、插管一次成功率、患者插管过程中呛咳、肢体运动及呼吸抑制等不良反应和知晓情况。结果与T_1时比较,T_3~T_5时A组MAP明显升高,HR明显增快(P0.05),B组、C组差异无统计学意义;与T_1时比较,T_4~T_6时C组SpO_2明显下降(P0.05),T_3~T_6时C组RR明显减慢(P0.05),A组、B组差异无统计学意义。A组呛咳、肢体运动发生率明显高于B组和C组(P0.05);A组、B组呼吸抑制发生率明显低于C组(P0.05)。结论 2.0ng/ml靶控浓度瑞芬太尼联合右美托咪定能有效抑制插管时的应激反应,减少呼吸抑制发生,适合用于颈椎手术患者电子插管软镜引导经鼻清醒插管。     

Cricoid pressure: indications and complications

Cricoid pressure to occlude the upper end of the oesophagus, also called the Sellick manoeuvre, may be used to decrease the risk of pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents during intubation for rapid induction of anaesthesia. Effective and safe use of the technique requires training and experience. Cricoid pressure is contraindicated in patients with suspected cricotracheal injury, active vomiting, or unstable cervical spine injuries. The technique may be particularly difficult in patients with a history of difficult intubation. The recommended pressure to prevent gastric reflux is between 30 and 40 Newtons (N, equivalent to 3-4 kg), but pressures greater than 20 N cause pain and retching in awake patients and a pressure of 40 N can distort the larynx and complicate intubation. The recommended procedure is, therefore, to induce anaesthesia and apply a pressure of about 30 N, either manually or with the cricoid yoke, to facilitate intubation. Reported complications of cricoid pressure during intubation include oesophageal rupture and exacerbation of unsuspected airway injuries.     

Cervical spine injury and airway management

Cervical spine injuries occur in 2-5% of blunt trauma patients, and 1-5% of these injuries are initially missed. Data from the large National Emergency X-Radiography Utilisation Study have helped to define the problem in some detail. There is a consensus on how to clear the cervical spine in patients who are alert, but in patients with altered mental status the choice of strategy for spinal clearance is more controversial. Despite obtaining extensive radiological studies, some clinicians will not clear the patient's cervical spine until full recovery of consciousness. As long as manual in-line neck stabilization is applied, rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia, followed by direct laryngoscopy and oral intubation appears to be safe in the patient with a cervical spine injury. If intubation is not urgent, an awake fibreoptic technique is a useful option. If intubation of the patient with a potential cervical spine injury fails, or appropriate experienced personnel are unavailable, the laryngeal mask airway or one of its various modifications are useful alternatives.     

Delayed presentation and diagnosis of cervical spine injuries in long-standing ankylosing spondylitis

Patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) are vulnerable to cervical spine fractures. Long-standing pain may mask the symptoms of the fracture. Radiological imaging of the cervical spine may fail to identify the fracture due to the distorted anatomy, ossified ligaments and artefacts leading to delay in diagnosis and increased risk of neurological complications. The objectives are to identify the incidence and risk factors for delay in presentation of cervical spine fractures in patients with AS. Retrospective case series study of all patients with AS and cervical spine fracture admitted over a 12-year period at Queen Elizabeth National Spinal Injuries Unit, Scotland. Results show that total of 32 patients reviewed with AS and cervical spine fractures. In 19 patients (59.4%), a fracture was not identified on plain radiographs. Only five patients (15.6%) presented immediately after the injury. Of the 15 patients (46.9%) who were initially neurologically intact, three patients had neurological deterioration before admission. Cervical spine fractures in patients with long-standing AS are common and usually under evaluated. Early diagnosis with appropriate radiological investigations may prevent the possible long-term neurological cord damage.     

Risk factors for peri‐anaesthetic dental injury

In this retrospective case–control study, we evaluated peri‐operative dental injury risk factors following tracheal intubation. Ninety‐four of 290,415 patients experienced dental injury following tracheal intubation over a 10‐y period. A control group was matched for surgery type and intubating anaesthetist. The incidence of dental injury was 0.03%. Univariate analysis revealed that previous and current difficult intubation, male gender, hepatitis, neurological disease, anticonvulsant use, pre‐existing poor dentition and the use of airway devices (other than a laryngoscope) were associated with dental injury. Multivariate analysis revealed that predictors of dental injury were: history of hepatitis, odds ratio (95% CI) 10.1 (1.02–100.3); poor dentition, 8.8 (3.9–20.0); alternative airway device use, 3.1 (1.2–8.0); and intubation difficulty, 3.7 (1.0–13.3). As well as confirming previously reported risk factors for dental injury during tracheal intubation, this study also suggests hepatitis and the use of alternative airway devices as additional risk factors.     

Präklinische Intubation bei Trauma

Orotracheal intubation remains the gold standard of securing a definitive airway in trauma care. When performed in the prehospital environment special attention has to be paid to cervical spine protection, the risk of aspiration and possible side-effects of analgesia and sedation. Intubation is clearly indicated in case of airway obstruction, impending loss of the airway, apnea and severe hypoxia not otherwise controlled. Prophylactic intubation based on specific injuries (head injury without unconsciousness, chest trauma, multiple fractures) alone without deterioration of vital functions is not generally indicated. Intubation may be considered in order to address special conditions of rescue and air-transport.     

Neurological outcome following early versus delayed lower cervical spine surgery

PURPOSE: To determine whether the timing of surgery affects neurological outcome in patients with lower cervical spine trauma. METHODS: 29 patients with a fracture and 38 with a fracture-dislocation of C3 to C7 cervical vertebrae were treated operatively during the inclusive period January 1987 to December 2000. Surgery was performed as soon as the patient's medical condition allowed, within 72 hours in 31 and more than 72 hours after the injury in 36. RESULTS: Only patients with incomplete spinal cord injury had neurological improvement after surgery. There was no statistically significant difference in final neurological outcomes in patients having early as opposed to delayed surgery. CONCLUSION: Surgical intervention for cervical injuries is safe, as no postoperative neurological deterioration was recorded. Timing of surgery does not affect neurological outcome.     

Posttraumatische Trachealstenose nach komplexer HWS-Fraktur

Combined injuries of the upper cervical spine are rare and can lead to life-threatening positional changes of the respiratory tract. Hence, it is very important to recognize tracheal and soft tissue injuries and to treat these adequately. We report on the clinical course and outcome of a case with a delayed high-grade tracheal stenosis after cervical spine injury, which could only be treated by emergency tracheotomy and partial transverse trachea resection. The 25-year-old female suffered a complex dislocated upper cervical spine fracture with a Jefferson fracture, an odontoid fracture and a dislocated C6/7 luxation fracture after a motor vehicle accident. Immediately after trauma inspiratory stridor was reported. Postoperatively, the tracheal stenosis increased and the histological examination of tissue collected during emergency bronchoscopy showed granulation tissue. Even if fractures of cervical spine injuries are treated successfully, soft tissue and tracheal injuries cannot be precluded. Therefore, it is most important that such patients are followed-up closely to classify the problem and to determine the ideal time for surgical treatment of tracheal injuries and stenoses.     

光棒辅助与普通喉镜气管插管用于颈椎骨折手术患者的比较

目的比较光棒辅助与普通喉镜气管插管用于颈椎骨折全麻患者的插管效果和安全性。方法选择拟行气管插管全麻的颈椎骨折手术患者40例,男28例,女12例,年龄18~65岁,ASAⅡ或Ⅲ级,随机分为两组,每组20例。全麻诱导后,L组采用光棒引导气管插管,C组采用普通喉镜辅助气管插管。记录一次插管成功例数、插管时间,插管前5 min、插管即刻和插管后5 min的MAP和HR,以及插管时不良反应情况。结果 L组的一次性插管成功率明显高于C组(90%vs.60%),插管时间明显短于C组[(31.3±11.1)s vs.(46.6±15.2)s](P0.05)。与C组比较,L组患者插管期间MAP和HR变化更平稳。C组有4例(20%)心律失常,L组无一例心律失常。结论与普通喉镜比较,光棒引导气管插管用于颈椎骨折手术患者插管更容易,安全性更好。     

Management of airway trauma. I: Tracheobronchial injuries

One hundred six consecutive patients with injuries to the tracheobronchial tree who were admitted to the emergency room of the Tulane Medical Center Hospital or the Charity Hospital of Louisiana at New Orleans over a period of almost 20 years were analyzed retrospectively. Penetrating trauma of the neck or chest was reported in 100 of the patients, and only 6 had blunt trauma to the neck or thorax as the cause of injury. There were 18 deaths among the 106 patients (16.98%), including 11 (13.75%) of 80 with injuries of the cervical trachea. Seven (53.8%) of 13 with principal injuries of the thoracic trachea died; all 13 patients with major bronchial injuries survived. On admission to the emergency room, all patients had signs of airway compromise such as tachypnea, dyspnea, cyanosis, subcutaneous emphysema, or an abnormal respiratory pattern. Severe airway compromise was evident in 46 patients; 24 (23%) were treated with oral or nasal intubation, 19 (18%) with emergency tracheostomy, and 3 (2%) with intubation of a tracheal injury. Hemoptysis was an unreliable signal of serious injury, being present in only 28 of the patients. Patients who had major vascular injuries combined with trachea involvement were generally not salvageable. In regard to morbidity and mortality, the most common preventable errors were delay in diagnosis and treatment of tracheobronchial injuries, missed esophageal injuries, massive aspiration of blood, and abdominal vascular injuries.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A novel modified method of using Trachway intubating stylet for awake tracheal intubation in patients with anticipated difficult airway

The Trachway intubating stylet is designed to facilitate tracheal intubation in anesthetized patients with a normal or difficult airway anatomy. The shortcoming of this device is the lack of a working channel to provide topicalization of the airway. We describe a novel modified method of using Trachway intubating stylet to provide airway topicalization and perform awake orotracheal intubation in two cases with an anticipated difficult airway. The first case was a superobese patient with a cervical spine disorder, whereas the second case was a patient with an enlarged thyroid gland. Transtracheal lidocaine injection was technically difficult in these patients because of neck obesity and thyroid enlargement, respectively. We believe that this modified method can be used to provide effective airway topicalization when Trachway intubating stylet is used for awake orotracheal intubation.     

Recurrent spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormalities in children

Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality is a well-known entity in the pediatric age group. Age-related elasticity of the vertebral ligaments as well as immaturity of the osseous structures in the pediatric spine allow momentary subluxation in response to deforming forces. The resultant neurological injuries range from transient dorsal column dysfunction to complete cord transection. Between 1960 and 1985, 42 such injuries were treated at the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. Management of these radiographically occult spinal cord injuries consisted of cervical immobilization for 2 months in a hard collar and restriction of contact sports. Recurrent cord injury occurred in eight cases during the 2-month immobilization period. A clearly defined traumatic episode was identified in seven of the eight patients, although in four children the recurrent trauma to the spine was trivial. Five of the children removed their collars briefly before the second injury, and two children incurred reinjury with the hard collar in place. The remaining child was too young for hard-collar immobilization, and recurrent neurological deterioration occurred during sleep. Serial flexion-extension films failed to detect frank instability in any of the eight cases. The children most susceptible to reinjury were those who sustained mild or transient neurological deficits from an initial cord injury and who rapidly resumed normal activities. Radiographically occult spinal instability resulting from the initial injury to the vertebral and paravertebral soft tissues presumably made these children vulnerable to recurrent spinal cord injury, often from otherwise insignificant trauma. During the last 21 months, 12 additional children have been managed with a more stringent protocol combining neck immobilization in a rigid cervical brace for 3 months and restriction of both contact and noncontact sports, together with a major emphasis on patient compliance. With this new protocol, no recurrent cord injuries have been documented.     

Spinal fractures in patients with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis: Clinical characteristics by fracture level

BackgroundDiffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) makes the spine prone to unstable fractures with neurological deterioration. This study was conducted to assess clinical and radiographic features of spinal fractures in DISH by the level of spinal injury, and to evaluate the optimal treatment for each level.MethodsA multicenter retrospective study over a 5-year period, including 46 patients (35 males; 11 females) with a mean age of 77.2 ± 9.7 years at the time of injury. By fracture level, there were 7 cervical (15.2%), 25 thoracic (54.3%), and 14 lumbar (30.4%) fractures. We recorded the cause of injury, whether diagnosis was delayed, and neurological status by Frankel grade. Ossification and fracture patterns were assessed by CT-multi-planar reconstruction (MPR).ResultsNeurological status immediately after the cervical-spine injury was C (28.6%) or E (71.4%); after thoracic injury, C (12.0%) or E (88.0%); and after lumbar injury, D (21.4%) or E (78.6%). Inability to walk at admission was more frequent in patients with a spinal-cord injury above the lumbar level (P = .033). Vertebral-body fractures were observed in 14.3% of the cervical injuries, 80.0% of the thoracic injuries, and 50.0% of the lumbar injuries (P = .004). Most patients with a cervical fracture had a disc-level fracture (85.7%). Posterior-column ankylosis was observed in 14.3% of the cervical-fracture group, 72.0% of the thoracic-fracture group, and 78.6% of the lumbar-fracture group (P = .008).ConclusionOssification and fracture patterns in patients with DISH varied distinctly by the level of spinal injury. Intervertebral-disc fractures were frequently observed in the cervical spine. Delayed diagnosis, vertebral-body fracture, and posterior-column ankylosis were observed in the thoracolumbar spine. This study recommends 3 above and 3 below fusion, to avoid instrumentation failure in the fixation of spinal fracture in patients with DISH.