Sural-tibial nerve communications in humans

We investigated the occurrence of a communication between the sural and tibial nerves in 49 legs of 28 Japanese cadavers. In front of the calcanean tendon, we found the communication in 7 legs (14.3%) or in 5 cadavers (18.9%). The sural nerve gave rise to a number of medial and lateral branches, including the lateral calcanean branch at the lateral side of the ankle. The communicating branch with the tibial nerve arose from the first medial branch and pierced the deep fascia of the leg. In 4 cases, the U-shaped communication was formed between the sural and tibial nerves, and in 3 cases, the Y-shaped communication. Electrophysiologi-cal evidence of an anomalous motor function of the sural nerve has been reported recently. We consider that the U-shaped communication between the sural and tibial nerves gives a morphological basis to the motor function of the sural nerve.     

Mapping sensory nerve communications between peripheral nerve territories

The human cutaneous sensory map has been a work in progress over the past century, depicting sensory territories supplied by both the spinal and cranial nerves. Two critical discoveries, which shaped our understanding of cutaneous innervation, were sensory dermatome overlap between contiguous spinal levels and axial lines across areas where no sensory overlap exists. These concepts define current dermatome maps. We wondered whether the overlap between contiguous sensory territories was even tighter: if neural communications were present in the peripheral nerve territories consistently connecting contiguous spinal levels? A literature search using peer‐reviewed articles and established anatomy texts was performed aimed at identifying the presence of communications between sensory nerves in peripheral nerve territories and their relationship to areas of adjacent and non‐adjacent spinal or cranial nerves and axial lines (lines of discontinuity) in the upper and lower limbs, trunk and perineum, and head and neck regions. Our findings demonstrate the consistent presence of sensory nerve communications between peripheral nerve territories derived from spinal nerves within areas of axial lines in the upper and lower limbs, trunk and perineum, and head and neck. We did not find examples of communications crossing axial lines in the limbs or lines of discontinuity in the face, but did find examples crossing axial lines in the trunk and perineum. Sensory nerve communications are common. They unify concepts of cutaneous innervation territories and their boundaries, and refine our understanding of the sensory map of the human skin. Clin. Anat. 27:681–690, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Pseudoganglion on the connecting branch between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve

The connecting branch between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve often has an enlarged site. We investigated these enlarged sites of the connecting branches. We observed the 22 human feet of 20 Japanese cadavers. We investigated the connecting branch macroscopically and histologically. We found the connecting branches between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve in 19 feet out of 22 feet. This connecting nerve branch was interposed between the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus and the flexor hallucis brevis, and there enlarged in the anteroposterior direction. After penetration, numbers of fascicles of this connecting branch were increased at the enlarged site. In this region, the connective tissues surrounding the nerve fascicles and vessels were more developed compared with the adjoining sides of this branch. A few fascicles at this enlarged site innervated the first metatarsophalangeal joint capsule. Other nerve fascicles arose from the connecting branch and branched off muscular branches to the flexor hallucis brevis. This branch possibly receives the physical exertion or friction during gait due to its position. Deformity and overload of the foot can cause sensory disorders of the foot, but the anatomical basis for the relationship between the deformity/overload and sensory disorders of the foot is unclear. We discussed that this connecting branch can be a potential cause of pressure neuropathies in the human foot.     

Peripheral facial nerve communications and their clinical implications

The facial nerve (CN VII) nerve follows a torturous and complex path from its emergence at the pontomedullary junction to its various destinations. It exhibits a highly variable and complicated branching pattern and forms communications with several other cranial nerves. The facial nerve forms most of these neural intercommunications with branches of all three divisions of the trigeminal nerve (CN V), including branches of the auriculotemporal, buccal, mental, lingual, infraorbital, zygomatic, and ophthalmic nerves. Furthermore, CN VII also communicates with branches of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), and vagus nerve (CN X) as well as with branches of the cervical plexus such as the great auricular, greater, and lesser occipital, and transverse cervical nerves. This review intends to explore the many communications between the facial nerve and other nerves along its course from the brainstem to its peripheral branches on the human face. Such connections may have importance during clinical examination and surgical procedures of the facial nerve. Knowledge of the anatomy of these neural connections may be particularly important in facial reconstructive surgery, neck dissection, and various nerve transfer procedures as well as for understanding the pathophysiology of various cranial, skull base, and neck disorders.     

Thermoregulation of the Japanese macaque living in a snowy mountain area.

A field investigation was conducted to study the thermoregulatory responses in nine Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) living in a snowy mountain area, Jigoku-Dani (Hell Valley, about 1,000 m above sea level) in Shiga Heights in central Japan in late January 1975. At about the same time, a laboratory study was made on four Japanese macaques reared in mild climate in an outdoor cage in Inuyama City. In the Hell Valley (HV) monkeys, no significant change in metabolic rate was observed at Ta between -1.4 and 28.3 degrees C, while the rectal temperature was maintained at normal level. In the cold environment, the skin temperatures of HV monkeys were significantly higher than those of the monkeys living indoors previously studied. Similar patterns of metabolic and thermal responses were observed in Inuyama monkeys living outdoors, but to a lesser degree. The hair on the back and abdomen in the HV monkeys was significantly longer than that of Iuyama monkeys living indoors. It is suggested that the thick fur of HV monkeys may account for, if not all, the thermoregulatory responses of the Japanese macaque in snowy mountain areas.     

Asymmetric perception of radial expansion/contraction in Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) infants

Visual radial expansion/contraction motion provides important visual information that is used to control several adaptive actions. We investigated radial motion perception in infant Japanese macaque monkeys using an experimental procedure previously developed for human infants. We found that the infant monkeys’ visual preference for the radial expansion pattern was greater than that for the radial contraction pattern. This trend towards an “expansion bias” is similar to that observed in human infants. These results suggest that asymmetrical radial motion processing is a basic visual function common to primates, and that it emerges early in life.     

Cerebromalacia with epilepsy and cortical blindness in a laboratory Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)

The authors performed a pathological examination of a 5-year-old female laboratory Japanese monkey who developed cortical blindness and epileptic seizures. Generalized, tonic-clonic seizures started to occur during behavioral training to get the animal to enter a carrying cage for future psychological experiments. Blindness was suspected because of a lack of approaching behavior toward foods such as fruits. Although the monkey was extensively treated with anticonvulsants, the clinical signs did not improve. An increased serum creatine phosphokinase (CPK) level and bilateral occipital brain atrophy were detected. Histopathologically, a severe degree of cerebromalacia was detected bilaterally in the occipital lobe, and necrosis and gliosis were seen mainly in the temporal lobe. Focal inflammation was found in the meninges. No other changes were observed in other nervous tissues or organs, and no signs of a parasitic or viral infection were found in the systemic organs. Spontaneously occurring lesions in the central nervous system have been rarely reported in laboratory monkeys. In the present case, the cause of cerebromalacia could not be confirmed, but the relationship between symptoms such as abnormal vision and the presence of brain lesions was distinct. The authors believe that this case is a valuable historical control case for the laboratory Japanese macaque.     

Ramification pattern of the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve in the human foot

To understand how the oblique and transverse heads of the adductor hallucis muscle of the human foot are phylogenitically and ontogenetically developed, it is essential to know nerve supplies of these two heads of the muscle. In the present study, we dissected seven feet of five Japanese cadavers in detail to clarify the ramification patterns of the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve by peeling off its epineurium (the nerve fascicle analysis method). We found that the muscular branch to the oblique head of the adductor hallucis muscle directly separated from nerve fascicles constituting the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve, whereas the muscular branch to the transverse head arose in common with branches which innervated other intrinsic muscles of the foot, i.e., the 2nd and 3rd lumbrical muscles and the 1st and 2nd dorsal interossei muscles. The present study revealed that two heads of the adductor hallucis muscle, the oblique and transverse, had different innervating patterns, suggesting that two heads of the human adductor hallucis muscle develop from different primordia, and not from common ancestors.     

The communicating branch of the lateral plantar nerve: A descriptive anatomic study

Since the communicating branch of the lateral plantar nerve has been implicated as a factor in the etiology of Morton's neuroma, a painful perineurofibrosis of a common plantar digital nerve, this project was designed to investigate the anatomy of this communicating branch. Both feet of 40 embalmed human cadavers were dissected to show the frequency of occurrence and anatomical variation of the communicating branch. The communicating branch was present in 66.2% of the feet we studied with no large gender-based differences. Branches occurred bilaterally in 52.5% of cadavers, while 27.5% had branches unilaterally. The occurrence of this branch does not correlate well with the likelihood of development of Morton's neuroma. Differences in diameter of the communicating branch ranged from less than 0.5 mm to as large as the common plantar digital nerves themselves, about 2 mm. The presence or absence of the communicating branch made no qualitative difference in the diameters of the common plantar digital nerves. There were 60.4% of the communicating branches in this study that had a typically-described orientation, arising more proximally in the foot from the fourth common plantar digital nerve, while 39.6% of the branches had a reversed orientation, arising more proximally from the third common plantar digital nerve. These reversed branches had a more oblique orientation when compared to the classic branches. Other anatomical variations were noted, including accessory branches that attached to deeper structures in the foot. These data form a basis for further research into the etiology of Morton's neuroma and improved surgical techniques for correcting this condition. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Substance P-like immunoreactive nerve fibers in the pars distalis of the adenohypophysis of macaque monkeys

A substantial number of substance P-like immunoreactive nerve fibers were found in the anterior pituitary of macaque monkeys. Most of them were thin fibers with abundant varicosities, which were often in close proximity to the glandular cells. They were found only in the median part of the gland and were distributed chiefly in its dorso-posterior region.     

A comparison of thermoregulatory responses in the Japanese macaque (Macca fuscata) and the crab-eating macaque (Macaca irus) during cold exposure.

Thermoregulatory responses in four male adult Japanese macaques and four male adult crab-eating macaques, weighing 6-12 kg and 6.2-8 kg, respectively, were compared at ambient temperatures (Ta) ranging from 5 degrees C to 25 degrees C. The average values +/- S.E. for some physiological measurements made at Ta of 25 degrees C in the Japanese macaque and the crab-eating macaque, respectively, were as follows: resting metabolic rate; 47.6 +/- 5.0 and 42.5 +/- 1.7 W/M2; tissue conductance; 11.9 +/- 0.8 and 8.9 +/- 0.8 W/M2/degrees C; respiratory evaporative heat loss; 4.1 +/- 0.3 and 3.2 +/- 0.5 W/M2; rectal temperature; 38.6 +/- 0.1 and 37.4 +/- 0.2 degrees C; mean skin temperature; 34.0 +/- 0.3 and 31.2 +/- 0.1 degrees C. When Ta was lowered stepwise from 25 degrees C to 20, 15, 10, and 5 degrees C successively, and maintained constant at each temperature level for 1 hr, metabolic heat production graudually increased in both species. Whe Ta was lowered from 10 degrees C to 5 degrees C, the crab-eating macaque did not show further increase in heat production and the result was a loss of thermal equilibrium with rectal temperature continuing to fall. On the other hand, the Japanese macaque maintained thermal balance even at Ta of 5 degrees C. Tissue conductance, which was significantly higher in the Japanese macaque than in the crab-eating macaque at Ta of 5, 15, and 25 degrees C, decreased in both species at Ta was lowered from 25 degrees C to 15 and 5 degrees C. The specific differences in thermo-regulatory responses are considered to be adaptational, relative to the natural habitat of thw two species studied.     

Sensory nerve endings in the beak skin of Japanese quail

Summary This study is concerned with the distribution and ultrastructure of sensory nerve endings in the beak skin of adult Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). The following nerve endings were found: free nerve endings, clusters of dermal Merkel nerve endings, Herbst corpuscles and Ruffmi corpuscles. The latter were found only in the dermis of the tip of the upper beak. The remaining endings were present in the skin of all areas of upper and lower beak. Free nerve endings were supplied by either thin myelinated axons or unmyelinated C-fibers and were localized in the dermis close to the basal layer of the epidermis. Merkel cells formed clusters (up to 50) localized below and between the epidermal cones of the beak skin. Disc-shaped thickenings of nerve endings were squeezed between individual Merkel cells. Small Herbst corpuscles were found in the dermis close to the epidermal cones of the beak skin. Large Herbst corpuscles occurred in deep layers of the dermis. The Ruffmi corpuscles were cylindrical in shape (80 m × 400 m) and arranged in groups of up to ten corpuscles. Each corpuscle was surrounded by an incomplete fibrous capsule.     

Immunocytochemical demonstration of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in optic nerve and nasal region of fetal rhesus macaque

The brain and nasal region of a fetal (124 days) female rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) were fixed in situ, decalcified, sectioned and treated for the immunocytochemical demonstration of LHRH. Immunoreactive neurons and fibers were found in expected sites and also in sites not reported to date in primates: there was an abundant distribution along the pathway of the nervus terminalis and clusters of neurons anterior and ventral to the olfactory bulbs and scattered in the nasal septum. Fibers extended into the epithelium lining the nasal septum. Most unexpectedly, LHRH fibers and a few neurons were observed within the optic nerve.     

Tandem duplication of nucleolus organizer region (NOR) in the Japanese macaque, Macaca fuscata fuscata

During exploration of chromosome polymorphisms in Japanese macaques, a heteromorphic polymorphism was found in a population in the Zigokudani monkey park. The population consisted of three troops (social units). Of 36 monkeys examined, five females showed heterozygotic 'marker' chromosome (chromosome 9). The polymorphism was a tandem duplication of the nucleolus organizer region (NOR) of the short arm of chromosome 9, which was found for the first time in the genus Macaca. FISH and fibre-FISH using human 18S rDNA and sequential silver nitrate staining revealed that the duplicated region included a part of the euchromatic satellite and the stalk and that the euchromatic block (intercalary satellite) divided the NOR into two parts (distal and proximal). Furthermore, it showed that the distal region possessed much more rDNA than the proximal region, and that the duplications might have been introduced via a mechanism of gene amplification (inverted duplications associated with over-replication and recombination events). As the tandem duplication was observed sporadically in four maternal pedigrees in two troops and the mothers of the variants all had normal chromosomes, the variation might have been introduced from another population's gene pool by a solitary male immigrant.     

携带感觉神经足底内侧动脉皮瓣修复足跟软组织缺损的临床应用

目的　探讨携带感觉神经的足底内侧动脉皮瓣修复足跟区软组织缺损的临床应用效果。 方法　自2016年6月至2017年11月,笔者单位收治12例足跟皮肤软组织缺损患者,其中2例合并跟骨结节缺损(缺损长度小于1 cm)。采用携带感觉神经的足底内侧动脉皮瓣修复创面,创面面积（扩创后面积）为3 cm×4 cm~10 cm× 6 cm,切取皮瓣面积为3.5 cm×4.5 cm~11 cm×7 cm。通过观察皮瓣外观、血运、弹性及两点辨别觉评价临床效果。 结果　12例皮瓣完全成活。10例患者获随访6~14个月,皮瓣外观满意,质地柔软,无臃肿,弹性佳,两点辨别觉5~ 9 mm。8例无骨缺损患者穿鞋、行走不受限;2例合并骨缺损患者需穿软底带跟鞋且持续行走半小时感觉局部刺痛。 结论　携带感觉神经的足底内侧动脉皮瓣能较好的重建足跟外观、感觉及功能,是修复足跟软组织缺损的有效方式。     

Gustatory coding in the precentral extension of area 3 in Japanese macaque monkeys; comparison with area G

The precentral extension of area 3 as well as the transition between the frontal operculum and insula (area G) comprises the primary gustatory cortex in the subhuman primate, receiving projections from the thalamic taste relay. However, in contrast to the extensive studies that have been carried out on the latter area, only a few taste units in the former area have been recorded. To clarify gustatory coding in area 3, we investigated the taste response properties of neurons in area 3 compared with those in area G in alert monkeys by infiltrating into their mouths seven taste stimuli [0.3 M sucrose (S), 0.1 M NaCl (N), 0.01 N HCl (H), 0.003 M quinine-HCl (Q), 0.1 M monosodium glutamate (MSG), distilled water (W), and orange juice (OR)] and artificial saliva (SA). A larger number of HCl-best units and a smaller number of quinine-best units were found in area 3 than in area G. The onset latency and response duration were significantly shorter in area 3 than in area G. Weighted multi-dimensional scaling showed that area G divided eight stimulants into four classes, i.e. two groups (H-Q-W and S-MSG-OR), N and SA, whereas area 3 divided them into three classes (N-MSG-W-OR, S-Q, and H-SA). This suggested that tastants not separated in area G were separated in area 3, and vice versa. This indicates that both areas complement each other in the representation of taste stimuli, each contributing to taste information processing in a different manner.     

足底内侧和外侧群肌的肌内神经整体分布模式及临床意义

目的 揭示足底内侧和外侧群肌的肌内神经整体分布模式,探讨其临床意义.方法 24具成年尸体,完整取下足底内侧和外侧群肌,采用改良Sihler染色显示肌内神经分布模式.结果 (足母)收肌的神经支从肌止端的深面入肌,而(足母)展肌、(足母)短屈肌、小趾展肌和小趾短屈肌的神经支常从肌起端的深面入肌.(足母)展肌中有1个半月形和...     

The terminal insertional segments and communications of the vertebral nerve in the human cervical region

Twenty-four cadavers (48 sides) were used to clarify the terminal insertional segment and communications of the vertebral nerve in the cervical region under a surgical microscope. After displacing the prevertebral muscles (longus colli and longus capitis) laterally, the ventral parts of the transverse foramen of vertebrae (from C2 to C6) were removed, and the insertional segment and communicates of the vertebral nerve surrounding the vertebral artery were observed. The results showed: (1) the vertebral nerve ascended along the ventral or mediodorsal vertebral artery and terminated mainly at C3 (22/36 sides) but not terminated at C4 or C5 only; (2) the superficial communicates from the cervical sympathetic trunk ran in a proximal and distal direction when the fibers entered the anterior branches of the cervical nerves. The fibers running to the proximal direction communicated with the vertebral nerve in the part of transverse foramen; (3) motor and/or sensory rami supplying the prevertebral muscles, corpus vertebrae and intervertebral discs could pass through an "arched-shaped" fiber bundle on the ventral surface of the vertebral artery. In conclusion, the vertebral nerve and the fibers surrounding the vertebral artery could be considered as a stable deep pathway of cervical sympathetic nerves. The deep pathway (vertebral nerve and its branches) with the superficial pathways (cervical sympathetic trunk and its branches) formed a sympathetic nervous "plexus" in the cervical region. This sympathetic nervous "plexus" may be involved in the effects of cervical ganglionic blockade.