Outcome of fetuses in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of pregestational diabetes on pregnancy outcome. METHODS: Data of 126 women with pregestational diabetes prospectively collected and controlled in a single tertiary center. HbA(1C) levels at early pregnancy were registered. Adverse pregnancy outcome was defined as spontaneous abortion, congenital defect, stillbirth, or neonatal death. RESULTS: There were 10 spontaneous abortions (7.9%) and 17 fetuses with congenital anomalies (13.4%), including 8 major malformations (6.3%). Compared with pregnancies with a favorable outcome, a higher HbA(1C) concentration in early pregnancy was observed in pregnancies with adverse perinatal outcome [mean (SD): 6.3 (1.6) vs. 7.2 (1.7), P=0.001]. A positive correlation between increased maternal HbA(1C) levels and the rate of fetal malformations was observed, and the group of women with poor metabolic control (early maternal HbA(1c) concentration >7%) showed a 3 to 5-fold increase in the major malformation rate. Cardiovascular and genitourinary defects accounted for 58.8% of the anomalies, and the ultrasound examinations detected seven of them (41.2%). For major malformations, the detection rate was 50% (4/8). Perinatal mortality rate was 26 per thousand (3/116). There was almost 5-fold increase in the total pregnancy loss rate in the poor control group compared with the group with fair control [22.2% vs. 5.3%, OR (95% CI): 5.1 (1.4-17.1)]. Only 11.9% of mothers used a preconception care program. CONCLUSIONS: Pregestational diabetes mellitus is a significant risk factor for the developing fetus. Spontaneous abortions and congenital defects are more common when a poor metabolic control is present in early pregnancy. It is most important to improve access to preconception care programs for achieving a good metabolic control in early pregnancy. Ultrasound examinations have a low performance for detecting congenital defects in diabetic pregnancies.     

Spontaneous and indicated preterm delivery in pregestational diabetes mellitus: etiology and risk factors

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the indications for preterm delivery and identify risk factors predicting preterm delivery in pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes (PGDM). STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study of all women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus followed from preconception to delivery at our institute from 1996 to 2004 (study group). Rates of spontaneous and indicated preterm delivery were compared with a control group of nondiabetic women. RESULTS: Rates of preterm delivery were 26.6% (119/448) and 6.0% (1,038/17,370) in the study and control groups, respectively (P < 0.001). The PGDM group had higher rates of both spontaneous (6.9% vs. 4.8%, P < 0.001) and indicated (19.6% vs. 1.2%, P < 0.001) preterm deliveries. Most of the preterm deliveries in the PGDM group were indicated (73.9%) compared with 20.1% in the control group (P < 0.001). Preeclampsia was the most significant factor associated with indicated preterm delivery in the PGDM group (OR = 11.7, 95% CI = 3.3-41.7), followed by nephropathy, nulliparity, HbA1c levels prior to conception and prior to delivery, duration of diabetes, prepregnancy body mass index and weight gain during pregnancy. Spontaneous preterm delivery was related to duration of diabetes, presence of nephropathy, and previous preterm delivery. CONCLUSION: The risk of both spontaneous and indicated preterm delivery is increased in pregnancies complicated by PGDM. Except for glycemic control, none of the risk factors identified is modifiable by preconception or antenatal care.     

Risk factors associated with altered fetal growth in patients with pregestational diabetes mellitus

Objective: To assess the risk factors for abnormal fetal growth in patients with pregestational diabetic mellitus (DM). Methods: A retrospective study was performed in 336 patients with pregestational DM. Small-for-gestational-age (SGA) and large-for-gestational-age (LGA) infants were defined as newborns with birth weights < 10th percentile and > 90th percentile, respectively. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify risk factors for SGA and LGA. Results: Multivariate analysis of the patients with pregestational DM revealed a significant difference between patients who delivered SGA and appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) infants in terms of retinopathy (OR?=?5.73, 95%CI?=?1.39–23.59) and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) before delivery (OR?=?0.80, 95%CI?=?0.68 – 0.94, with a 0.1% increase in DCCT unit). Multivariate analysis revealed a significant difference between patients who delivered LGA and AGA infants in terms of primipara (OR?=?3.40, 95%CI?=?1.47–7.87) and HbA1C before delivery (OR?=?1.14, 95%CI?=?1.07–1.21, with a 0.1% increase in DCCT unit). Conclusions: HbA1C before delivery influenced both SGA and LGA infants in patients with pregestational DM. Tight glycemic control might be harmful to fetal growth in pregestational diabetic patients, especially when complicated with retinopathy.     

Medical nutritional therapy in pregnant women with pregestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: Diabetic women now can have the same chances as nondiabetic women to have a healthy infant. The reduction of risk associated with pregnancies complicated by diabetes can only be assured if normoglycemia is achieved before and during pregnancy. This review is intended to provide guidelines and scientific evidence for the optimal diet for the Type 1 or Type 2 diabetic woman. METHODS: The literature over the past 10 years is presented. Those diets which achieved the best outcome of pregnancies complicated by diabetes (as evidenced by term delivery of a healthy, normal weight infant) are then outlined. RESULTS: Diets which provide adequate calories without causing postprandial hyperglycemia or premeal ketosis are found to be based on body weight and gestational week of the pregnancy. Quantity of carbohydrate in the meal plan emerges as the most important component in achieving and maintaining glucose control. CONCLUSIONS: The medical nutritional therapy for the Type 1 and Type 2 diabetic woman is a necessary component of the overall strategy to achieve and maintain normoglycemia and thus achieve the best outcome of pregnancy.     

Preterm delivery in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus or chronic hypertension relative to women with uncomplicated pregnancies

Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare the rates of indicated and spontaneous preterm delivery among women with chronic hypertension or pregestational diabetes mellitus with the rates among healthy women. Study Design: This was a secondary analysis of data from healthy women with singleton gestations enrolled in a prospective observational study for prediction of preterm delivery (control group, N = 2738), women with pregestational diabetes mellitus requiring insulin therapy (n = 461), and women with chronic hypertension (n = 761). The two latter groups were enrolled in a randomized multicenter trial for prevention of preeclampsia. The main outcome measures were rates of preterm delivery, either spontaneous (preterm labor or rupture of membranes) or indicated (for maternal or fetal reasons), and neonatal outcomes. Results: The overall rates of preterm delivery were significantly higher among women with diabetes mellitus (38%) and hypertension (33.1%) than among control women (13.9%). Rates were also significantly higher for delivery at <35 weeks’ gestation. Women with diabetes mellitus had significantly higher rates of both indicated preterm delivery (21.9% vs 3.4%; odds ratio, 8.1; 95% confidence interval, 6.0-10.9) and spontaneous preterm delivery (16.1% vs 10.5%; odds ratio, 1.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-2.2) than did women in the control group. In addition, they had significantly higher rates of both indicated preterm delivery (odds ratio, 4.8; 95% confidence interval, 3.0-7.5) and spontaneous preterm delivery (odds ratio, 2.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.4-3.0) at <35 weeks’ gestation than did control women. Compared with control women those with chronic hypertension had higher rates of indicated preterm delivery at both <37 weeks’ gestation (21.9% vs 3.4%; odds ratio, 8.1; 95% confidence interval, 6.2-10.6) and at <35 weeks’ gestation (12.1% vs 1.6%; odds ratio, 8.2; 95% confidence interval, 5.7-11.9), but there were no differences in rates of spontaneous preterm delivery. Conclusion: The increased rate of preterm delivery among women with chronic hypertension relative to control women was primarily an increase in indicated preterm delivery, whereas the rates of both spontaneous and indicated preterm delivery were increased among women with pregestational diabetes mellitus. (Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1520-4.)     

Intensive insulin therapy in pregnancy: Strategies for successful implementation in pregestational diabetes mellitus

The role of intensive insulin therapy (IIT) in the reduction of long-term diabetes-related complications is well established. Normal blood glucose level prior to and during pregnancy is critical in reducing both short- and long-term morbidity and mortality in mother and infant. IIT in pregnancy, though occasionally challenging, is necessary to achieve and maintain normal blood glucose level during pregnancy. Current knowledge and recent advances in insulin formulations and delivery systems have improved our ability to achieve glycemic targets in pregnancy while limiting maternal and fetal morbidity. The objective of this review is to discuss contemporary strategies for successful use of IIT in pregnancy.     

Intensive insulin therapy in pregnancy: strategies for successful implementation in pregestational diabetes mellitus.

The role of intensive insulin therapy (IIT) in the reduction of long-term diabetes-related complications is well established. Normal blood glucose level prior to and during pregnancy is critical in reducing both short- and long-term morbidity and mortality in mother and infant. IIT in pregnancy, though occasionally challenging, is necessary to achieve and maintain normal blood glucose level during pregnancy. Current knowledge and recent advances in insulin formulations and delivery systems have improved our ability to achieve glycemic targets in pregnancy while limiting maternal and fetal morbidity. The objective of this review is to discuss contemporary strategies for successful use of IIT in pregnancy.     

Pregnancy and delivery course in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to assess mother and fetal outcome in gestational diabetic women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study covered 689 patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. All women had been taken care of II Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Warsaw Medical University in 1997-2001 years. The following parameters were analyzed: the patients ages, past obstetric experience, gestational age of GDM diagnosis, pregnancy complications, delivery course and neonatal outcomes. RESULTS: Among study group 11.9% patients required insulin to maintain blood glucose concentration in normal range. GDM was mostly (44.1%) diagnosed between 29 and 34 weeks of pregnancy. At the recommended gestational age of screening tests--24-28 weeks--there were detected only 33.4% GDM. The most frequent pregnancy complication was imminent preterm delivery (16.7%). Delivery at term occurred of 89.1% of cases. Percentage of preterm deliveries was 10.9%. Spontaneous vaginal deliveries were the most frequent (72.5%). 23.2% women were delivered by Cesarean section. The most frequent indication of surgical labor were the symptoms of intrauterine fetal asphyxia (35.6%) and cephalo-pelvic disproportion (26.3%). Most of the newborn (83.3%) had normal birth weight between 2500 g and 4000 g. Among infants the most frequent complications were: hyperbilirubinemia (17.3%) and hypoglicemia (15.6%). Intranatal death occurred in 0.1% of cases, whereas neonatal death--0.4%. Congenital defects were found in 4.3% of all offspring. The most frequent congenital malformation was heart defect--1.3% of newborns (almost half of all congenital defects) CONCLUSIONS: Early diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus and specialists obstetric surveillance prevent of pregnancy complications and perinatal mortality, morbidity.     

Correlation of placental pathology and perinatal outcomes with Hemoglobin A1c in early pregnancy in gravidas with pregestational diabetes mellitus

IntroductionData on the correlation among Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), placental pathology, and perinatal outcome in the pregestational diabetic population is severely lacking. We believe that this knowledge will enhance the management of pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes. We hypothesize that placental pathology correlates with glycemic control at an early gestational age.MethodsThis is a retrospective cohort study conducted from 2003 to 2011 at a large tertiary care center. Women included had a singleton gestation, preexisting diabetes mellitus, and information about delivery and placental pathology available for review. Placental pathology and perinatal outcomes were compared across three groups of patients with differing HbA1c levels (<6.5%, 6.5–8.4%, and ≥8.5%).Results293 placentas were examined. HbA1c was measured at a mean of 9.5week gestation. Median HbA1c was 7.5%, interquartile range 6.5%–8.9%. 23% of the cohort had HbA1c <6.5%, 41.9% between 6.5% and 8.4%, and 34.8% > 8.5%. BMI varied significantly by group (35.4 vs. 34.4 vs. 32.0 respectively, P = 0.04). Individual placental lesions did not vary with HbA1c levels. The incidence of acute chorioamnionitis differed significantly in the type 1 population and “distal villous hypoplasia” varied in the type 2 population.DiscussionThe results show that HbA1c values in early pregnancy are poor predictors of future placental pathologies. As a result, HbA1c values obtained during early gestation (which reflect the level of glycemic control over an extended period of time) do not correlate with any particular placental pathology, despite reflecting the potential for placental insults secondary to pre-gestational diabetes.     

New technologies for the management of pregestational diabetes mellitus

Purpose of the Review: The purpose of this review is to understand new modalities available to treat and manage type 1 and type 2 diabetes during pregnancy. Recent Findings: The use of new insulin analogs and oral agents, as well as new technologies to deliver insulin and monitor glucose during pregnancy remains controversial. This review will outline the advantages and disadvantages, as well as the safety profiles of these new medications and therapeutic options. Summary: There are many effective treatments for diabetes during pregnancy. New insulin analogs seem to be safe to use in pregnancy and offer the potential for better glycemic control compared with older agents. Oral hypoglycemic medications also seem to be safe and may be an option for a select group of pregnant patients with type 2 diabetes. Insulin pumps and continuous glucose monitoring systems may be beneficial in certain patients, but adequate data are not yet available in terms of outcomes and cost-effectiveness to support widespread use. Target Audience: Obstetricians & Gynecologists, Family Physicians Learning Objectives: After participating in this CME activity, physicians should be better able to revise glycemic goals for pregnant patients with pregestational diabetes to be in line with our current understanding of glycemic profiles in normal pregnant women. Use new insulin analogs to treat pregnant women with abnormalities in glucose homeostasis and choose which patients will benefit from advanced technologies for diabetes management, such as insulin pumps and continuous glucose monitoring systems.     

肥胖妊娠期妇女的糖耐量减低与糖尿病

妊娠期糖代谢的生理变化容易使妊娠期妇女发生糖耐量的减低，所以近年来妊娠期妇女糖代谢的异常受到诸多关注。因为妊娠期妇女糖耐量的减低不仅影响到母体，引起其代谢紊乱或者发展为妊娠期糖尿病，而且影响胎儿发育，以致发生胎儿的先天性畸形，发育异常，死亡率增加等一系列问题。如果在肥胖这个高危因素作用下，将会加重妊娠期妇女糖耐量减低的程度，甚至使其发展为妊娠期糖尿病的几率大大增加。着重对肥胖影响母体糖耐量的相关研究进行综述。     

肥胖妊娠期妇女的糖耐量减低与糖尿病

妊娠期糖代谢的生理变化容易使妊娠期妇女发生糖耐量的减低,所以近年来妊娠期妇女糖代谢的异常受到诸多关注.因为妊娠期妇女糖耐量的减低不仅影响到母体,引起其代谢紊乱或者发展为妊娠期糖尿病,而且影响胎儿发育,以致发生胎儿的先天性畸形,发育异常,死亡率增加等一系列问题.如果在肥胖这个高危因素作用下,将会加重妊娠期妇女糖耐量减低的程度,甚至使其发展为妊娠期糖尿病的几率大大增加.着重对肥胖影响母体糖耐量的相关研究进行综述.     

Computerized cardiotocography parameters in pregnant women affected by pregestational diabetes mellitus

AIM: To evaluate whether computerized CTG (cCTG) is a reliable method of predicting neonatal outcome in pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes at term. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We considered 27 pregnant women affected by pregestational diabetes and 46 normal pregnancies as controls that fulfilled the following criteria: singleton, Caucasian, euglycemic pregnancies at term (>37 weeks gestational age). All women delivered by cesarean section (CS), with an antepartum cCTG performed within one hour before the CS and an UBGA available at birth. No patient was in labor during FHR monitoring. RESULTS: Among cCTG parameters, accelerations 15 bpm, HV min, HV ms and STV were significantly lower in comparison to controls. We observed that in the diabetic pregnant women the parameter STV was not able to predict or to linearly regress with the most important UBGA parameters: pH and pCO2. Contrarily, in normal pregnancies, the STV linearly regressed with both the pH (p < 0.03) and pCO2 (p<0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Computerized FHR criteria may not be applicable to fetuses in pregestational diabetic pregnancies at term. Therefore some criteria should perhaps be modified for a correct interpretation of cCTG in these pregnancies.     

Pregnancy planning in women with pregestational diabetes

Objectives.?Women with pregestational diabetes are advised to plan their pregnancies to optimize glycemia and reduce fetal complications. We evaluated the adequacy of pregnancy planning effort and medical planning in pregnant women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Methods.?This retrospective cohort study surveyed pregnant women with pregestational diabetes mellitus between 2006 and 2008 in Ontario, Canada. We evaluated three measures of pregnancy planning: pregnancy planning effort, medical planning based on prepregnancy glycemic control, and folic acid use. We compared women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes and explored predictors of pregnancy planning.

Results.?Of the 163 women studied (89 type 1, 74 type 2 diabetes), 47% reported high pregnancy planning effort, 58% reported attempts to optimize glycemic control, and 56% took folic acid before pregnancy. Of those who reported high pregnancy planning, 20% did not medically plan their pregnancies. Rates were similar between women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The most important predictor of pregnancy planning was having discussed plans with their physician.

Conclusions.?Our findings suggest that pregnancy planning is suboptimal in women with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, highlighting a need to improve preconception counseling for all women with pregestational diabetes.     

Antepartum fetal surveillance and timing of delivery in the pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus

Pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus are associated with an increased risk of fetal and neonatal risks compared with pregnancies in the healthy gravida. Data suggest that stillbirth and perinatal mortality may be increased as much as 5 times for patients with insulin-dependent diabetes than in the general population. Pregnancies complicated by preexisting diabetes should undergo twice weekly surveillance with nonstress test or biophysical profile or a combination of both. Doppler studies should be reserved for those patients with vascular disease, intrauterine growth restriction, or hypertensive disorders.