Arterial supply of the soleus muscle: anatomical study of fifty lower limbs

Soft tissue defects of the lower limb are a formidable challenge to the plastic surgeon but a soleus muscle flap often provides the solution. Various types of soleus muscle flap have been described, based mainly on the vascular supply. The arterial blood supply of the soleus muscle was studied in 50 cadaveric lower limbs. The blood vessels and their branches to the muscle were dissected. The distance of the origin of the perforators was measured from fixed bony landmarks. Branches of the popliteal artery trunk, the posterior tibial artery, and the peroneal artery supplied the soleus muscle. The number of branches to the soleus muscle from these main arteries were analyzed. The medial part of the muscle was supplied throughout its length by perforators arising from the posterior tibial artery. This constant feature makes the medial part of the muscle reliable as a proximally or distally based flap. The average distances of the lower perforators arising from the posterior tibial artery were 6.5 cm, 11.6 cm, and 16.8 cm from the medial malleolus. The branches of the peroneal artery were mostly distributed in the upper half of the muscle. These large pedicles allow a composite transfer of the soleus muscle with the fibula. Lower perforators were demonstrated to arise from the peroneal artery in 60% of the limbs but the scarcity of perforators in this region limits the clinical usefulness of an inferiorly based lateral hemisoleus flap. The study demonstrates the distribution of arteries entering the soleus muscle and how the information may be used in the design of soleus muscle flaps. The average numbers of the perforators arising from the vessels and their distribution have been highlighted.     

The number of intercostal artery perforators over the distal latissimus dorsi muscle

With the increasing popularity of perforator flaps as “musculocutaneous flaps without muscle,” a new interest in the intercostal vessels as source vessels for perforator flaps has arisen. In a recent study, the branches of the three lowermost intercostal vessels to the latissimus dorsi were studied in detail. Now that these muscular branches are well understood, the present study examines how many of these branches reach the overlying skin as musculocutaneous perforators. We identified the intercostal artery perforators in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh interspaces, in 42 hemithoraces. Only branches that measured 0.5 mm or more in external diameter were included. The course of the perforators was followed from their exit from the latissimus dorsi muscle up to the entrance at the undersurface of the skin. This entrance point was punctured by a pin and thus marked on the skin. This study showed that at least three musculocutaneous perforators were present over the intercostal spaces IX–XI in every dorsal hemithorax (average 8 ± 3, range 3–16). Potentially, each of these vessels can be used as a pedicle for a separate perforator flap, leaving the more proximal parts of the latissimus dorsi intact for a second flap based on the dominant thoracodorsal vessels. Clin. Anat. 23:216–221, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

腓血管在胫腓骨远段的分布及临床意义

目的:为临床手术提供解剖学基础。方法:在成人下肢标本上解剖观测腓动脉至胫腓骨远段的分支。结果:腓血管行至小腿中部时,位于腓骨内侧面、胫骨的后外侧;腓动脉至胫骨远段的分支可以发自吻合支或直接发自腓动脉;腓动脉至腓骨远段的分支为弓形动脉。根据解剖观测结果,设计了以腓血管为蒂的胫腓骨远段后面联合骨(膜)瓣。结论:带腓血管蒂的胫腓骨远端后面联合骨(膜)瓣可以移位修复胫骨骨不连、骨缺损或逆行行踝关节融合术。     

腓动脉双穿支皮瓣设计的解剖学分析与临床应用

目的解剖分析小腿部腓动脉穿支的穿出规律及各穿支血管之间的联系,为临床设计腓动脉双穿支皮瓣提供形态学基础。方法新鲜小腿标本8例行动脉灌注乳胶-氧化铅,对腓动脉各穿支血管解剖结构主要是血管的形态、走形、分布进行研究分析,筛选适合做双穿支皮瓣的血管蒂。临床上应用7例,均为吻合双血管蒂皮瓣,并逐渐扩大皮瓣切取面积,皮瓣大小:5cm×9cm~8cm×15cm。结果腓动脉直径≥5mm的穿支血管4~5支,其中以第2支穿支外径最粗,外径为(0.94±0.11)mm、血管蒂较长,蒂长为(6.61±1.32)cm、皮瓣血供面积较大适合作为首选穿支蒂再联合其他穿支设计双穿支皮瓣。7例双皮支腓动脉穿支皮瓣均成活,随访3~12个月,穿支皮瓣质地优良,外观及功能恢复较佳。结论设计以第2穿支联合其他穿支的腓动脉双穿支皮瓣,皮瓣轴心线位于穿支点后侧,临床上可切取血供佳、面积较大的腓动脉穿支皮瓣。     

踝足部血管吻合支的研究与吻合胫前或胫后动脉逆行皮瓣的设计

目的：研究胫前动脉、胫后动脉和腓动脉之间在足踝部的吻合支的粗细,为吻合胫前或胫后动脉远端逆行血供皮瓣设计提供解剖学基础。方法：46侧新鲜小腿的动脉灌注红色塑料,制成动脉铸型标本。观察胫前、胫后和腓动脉在踝足部的吻合支的形态,测量血管的内径。结果：胫前、胫后和腓动脉三者之间在足踝部的吻合支丰富,胫后动脉经足底弓、足底深支与胫前动脉的吻合支最粗,内径为2.3mm。结论：胫前、胫后和腓动脉三者之间在足踝部的吻合支丰富,胫前动脉或胫后动脉之一断裂或栓塞时,只要三者之间在踝足部的主要吻合支未遭受破坏,胫前动脉或胫后动脉远端仍可作为皮瓣受区血管被利用。     

股后区主要穿支的形态学分析与皮瓣设计

目的：为股后区穿支皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学依据。方法：6具（12侧）动脉灌注明胶．氧化铅混悬液的新鲜成人整尸标本，解剖观测股后区外径≥0．5mm的穿支，测量其管径及其走行、分支与分布情况等。取下整个下肢被覆组织拍摄X线片，观测皮动脉的数量以及彼此间的吻合情况等。利用Photoshop与Scion Image分析穿支供血的趋向性及每个分支的供血面积等。结果：股后区共有穿支（外径≥0．5mm）27支，其中65％为皮穿支，35％为肌皮穿支。平均外径为0．8mm，平均蒂长为2．93cm。自股深动脉之穿动脉发出者平均长度为6．81cm。每侧穿动脉在股后区供血面积平均为229cm^2，平均每个穿支供血面积为43cm^2。结论：股后区的皮肤穿支管径较粗，营养皮肤面积较大，以股后诸穿支为蒂设计的穿支皮瓣可为下肢或身体其它部位皮肤移植提供：①游离皮瓣；②近端蒂皮瓣；③远端蒂皮瓣。     

腓动脉皮支链皮瓣的应用解剖*

目的：为腓动脉皮支链皮瓣的切取提供解剖学数据。方法：新鲜男尸正常下肢标本进行显微解剖,观测 腓动脉皮支的数量、直径、蒂长、穿出点的相对距离,血管吻合链的位置;观测铸型标本的腓动脉皮支;观测 聚乙烯醇- 氧化铋灌注标本X线血管造影腓动脉皮支的吻合情况。结果：每侧标本的腓动脉共发出皮支（5.8± 0.8）条,直径（0.9±0.1）mm。腓动脉发出的皮支在前后面（ 前后面以腓骨小头与外踝连线为长轴划分）分布 无差异。以腓骨头与外踝连线为标准距离[100%,（34.9±0.3）cm],腓动脉远段皮支血管丛聚集点在（30.7±1.2）% 的位置,约小腿远端1/3处位置,包含皮支（ 2.8±1.2）条 ;近段皮支血管丛聚集点在（78.7±1.3）%位置,约小 腿近端1/5位置,包含皮支（ 3.3±0.8）条 ;远、近2段皮支的直径差异无统计学意义,蒂长差异无统计学意义。 结论：相邻皮支间吻合形成与腓动脉平行走行的血管链。了解腓动脉皮支的特点和分布规律,为以腓动脉皮支为 蒂的皮支链皮瓣的设计提供解剖学基础。     

腓动脉穿支皮瓣的应用解剖

目的　为腓动脉穿支皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学基础。 方法　15例新鲜中国成人小腿标本,红色乳胶灌注,观测腓动脉穿支数目、分布、蒂长与外径、走行与类别。 结果　15例标本共出现68个穿支,每侧4.5个穿支,小腿外侧近端穿支呈多源性;腓动脉在腓骨头下10～15 cm节段穿支数所占比例最大,这一区间穿支蒂最长,为(5.23±0.75)cm;腓骨头下5～20 cm 范围内穿支外径较粗,小腿外侧近段穿支以比目鱼肌肌穿支为主,中远段以　长屈肌肌穿支和肌间隙支为主。 结论　腓骨头下10～15 cm节段腓动脉穿支较为恒定,穿支蒂较长,外径较粗,适合设计切取腓动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植。     

足内侧穿支皮瓣的解剖学研究与临床应用

目的：探讨足内侧穿支皮瓣的应用解剖及其修复手足部软组织缺损的临床效果.方法：10侧成人足踝标本经胫后动脉注入红色乳胶液,解剖观测足底内侧动脉穿支血管在足内侧区的分布、起源等.临床设计足内侧穿支皮瓣修复手足部软组织缺损19例,软组织缺损面积2 cm×2 cm～10 cm×6 cm.结果：足底内侧动脉向（足母）展肌和舟楔骨间隙内发出2支相对恒定的穿支血管,供养足内侧穿支皮瓣.19例皮瓣完全成活,皮瓣面积2 cm× 3 cm～11 cm×8 cm.随访3 ～ 26个月,皮瓣质地优良,外形与功能恢复满意,供区愈合良好.结论：以足底内侧动脉穿支血管营养的足内侧穿支皮瓣血供可靠,质地优良,是修复足踝及手部软组织缺损的良好选择.     

Unilateral arteria peronea magna associated with bilateral replaced dorsalis pedis arteries

During anatomic dissection, a 59-year-old man presented with an arteria peronea magna that replaced all the branches of the posterior tibial artery as well as the dorsalis pedis artery. Thus, the right popliteal artery terminated into the anterior tibial artery and the enlarged peroneal artery. The right anterior tibial artery ended before it reached the ankle. The right dorsalis pedis artery arose from the peroneal artery through its perforating branch. The left popliteal artery gave rise to a common stem that subdivided into two individual branches replacing the proximal part of the anterior tibial artery, and then divided into the posterior tibial artery and the peroneal artery. As on the right side, the left dorsalis pedis artery also arose from the peroneal artery through its perforating branch. A possible embryologic explanation of these variations is proposed.     

Anatomical Basis and Clinical Application of the First Metatarsal Proximal Perforator-Based Neurocutaneous Vascular Flap

Forefoot defects caused by accidents are very common, but their reconstruction remains a substantial challenge for plastic surgeons. The purpose of this study is to determine the anatomical structure of the first metatarsal proximal perforator-based flap and to propose its clinical application. The study was divided into two parts: an anatomical study and a clinical application. Thirty preserved lower limbs injected with red latex were chosen for observation, and the following were recorded: the course and distribution of the medialis dorsalis pedis cutaneous nerve; the origin, course, branching and distribution of the first metatarsal proximal perforator; and the communication of the perforator and the dorsal medial vessels. Clinically, six cases of forefoot skin defects were reconstructed with the first metatarsal proximal perforator-based neurocutaneous vascular flap. The medialis dorsalis pedis cutaneous nerve mainly arose from the medial branch of the superficial peroneal nerve and proceeded forward for a distance of 2.5 ± 0.4 cm under the surface of the inferior extensor retinaculum; then, the nerve divided into the medial dorsal branch and the first and second dorsal metatarsal branches. The first metatarsal proximal perforator-based neurocutaneous vessels were multisegmented and multisourced, and the first branch was closely related to the operative procedure. In terms of the clinical application, all flaps of the six cases survived completely with good appearance, texture and elasticity. The first metatarsal proximal perforators present as constant. The first metatarsal proximal perforator-based neurocutaneous vascular flap may become a useful supplemental material for the reconstruction of forefoot defects. Clin. Anat., 33:653–660, 2020. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

逆行岛状V型腓骨肌皮瓣修复后足缺损的应用解剖

目的：为以逆行岛状Ⅳ型腓骨肌皮瓣修复跟骨及后足大面积软组织缺失提供解剖学资料。方法：在５０侧下肢标本、４０块跟骨上对腓骨肌皮瓣的血供、血管蒂旋转点的设定及跟骨内骨小梁的分布情况等进行了观测。结果：（１）腓动脉沿途发出７．６支肌皮支,分布到腓骨及其邻近软组织,该动脉下端与胫关、胫后动脉有丰富而粗大的吻合,完全可提供逆流供血;（２）跟骨内骨小梁的分布在不同的矢状切面上有明显的差异,这与其负重时的应分分     

同体两侧股前外侧皮瓣的解剖学对比

目的 探讨同体两侧股前外侧（ALT）皮瓣的解剖学差异,为术前进行供侧大腿选择的必要性提供解剖学依据。 方法 10具新鲜尸体标本（共20例）上行双侧ALT皮瓣制取,寻找皮瓣的营养穿支,记录穿支类型和数量,并逆向追溯到血管蒂;测量各穿支、血管蒂的长度和管径,统计学数据采用均值±标准差。 结果 10具标本中有3具两侧股前外侧皮瓣为肌间隔穿支和肌皮穿支双供血型;其余7具两侧穿支类型不同。7具标本两侧皮瓣的穿支数量不同,另外3具的穿支数量相同。肌间隔穿支走行于股直肌与股外侧肌之间的肌间隙内,肌皮穿支或垂直或斜形穿过股外侧肌,其穿支长度各异。皮瓣穿支全部发自旋股外侧动脉（LCFA）降支的有14例,另有6例（30%,源于5具标本）皮瓣既有降支又有斜支参与供血,其中1具标本两侧均由斜支与降支双重供血,其余4具标本均只有1侧为斜支与降支双重供血。10具标本共20例皮瓣的两侧主要穿支和血管蒂管径及长度差别不大(P>0.05)。 结论 同体两侧股前外侧皮瓣的营养穿支在类型、数量、走行、血管蒂来源上存在差异,穿支的种类及走行对于皮瓣制取的难易及操作时间有直接影响。术前进行供侧大腿的选择有助于股前外侧皮瓣精准、快捷的制取。     

带腋毛穿支皮瓣的解剖学基础

目的探讨腋窝穿支的解剖学特征,为临床阴阜软组织缺损的修复提供带毛皮瓣。方法选用30侧成人尸体标本15具(30侧),通过乳胶灌注、巨微解剖等方法,重点观测:①腋窝穿支血管的起源、分支与吻合;②腋窝穿支血管的外径与长度。结果腋窝底部皮肤有3种穿支:①胸背动脉第1皮支:出现率96.7%,起始外径(1.2±0.3)mm;②胸外侧动脉第1皮支:出现率90%,起始外径(1.2±0.2)mm;③腋动脉直接穿支:出现率93.3%,起始外径(1.4±0.3)mm。结论腋窝区皮肤血供丰富,解剖恒定,至少有一条皮穿支可遴选为血管蒂设计带毛穿支皮瓣,修复因肿瘤根治术后、烧伤、创伤等原因导致的带毛区皮肤缺损。     

胫后动脉穿支皮瓣设计的应用解剖

目的　为临床设计以胫后动脉肌间隙穿支皮瓣提供解剖学基础。 方法　8例成人新鲜小腿标本,解剖观察胫后动脉肌间隙穿支血管及其分支的分布规律,设计以胫后动脉穿支为血管蒂的显微削薄穿支皮瓣、联体穿支皮瓣、穿支蒂嵌合穿支皮瓣及穿支分叶皮瓣,并模拟皮瓣切取。 结果　胫后动脉平均发出4.8支(3~7支)肌间隙穿支,有3支较恒定、外径较粗的穿支分别位于内踝上(6.7±1.1) cm、(15.8±1.8) cm和(22.6±1.7) cm处;在深筋膜下穿支可发出多支皮支、骨膜支、肌支,骨膜支的穿支主要集中在小腿中段,在同一分支点两皮支起始外径均≥0.5 mm的穿支主要集中在中、上段。 结论　在小腿中、上段的胫后动脉的第1、2穿支较恒定、外径较粗、蒂较长及可发出多种组织分支,适合切取胫后动脉穿支蒂显微削薄穿支皮瓣、联体穿支皮瓣、嵌合穿支皮瓣及穿支分叶皮瓣。     

跟外侧动脉穿支皮瓣的应用解剖

目的　探讨跟腱区及跟部皮肤软组织的血供解剖学,为跟外侧动脉穿支皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学基础。 方法　16侧经红色乳胶灌注的成人下肢标本,解剖观察跟外侧动脉“垂直段”及其穿支血管的位置、口径、数目及分布规律。 结果　位于小腿后骨筋膜鞘深部的腓动脉于外踝尖上(6.6±1.1) cm ( 5.5~9.4 cm) 发出腓动脉前穿支和跟外侧动脉,跟外侧动脉下行穿出分隔小腿后骨筋膜鞘浅、深部之小腿后筋膜隔到达外踝后间隙,于腓骨肌腱与跟腱之间移行,继续绕外踝向前下方分布。小腿下段腓动脉、跟外侧动脉穿支数为(3.6±0.7)支,口径为（0.9±0.29） mm,营养跟腱区及跟部皮肤软组织。 结论　研究结果显示跟腱区及跟部皮肤软组织的血供主要来源于腓动脉、跟外侧动脉,为跟外侧动脉的命名、临床应用以及小腿中下段皮瓣的设计和跟部手术提供解剖学基础。     

带腓浅神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣的应用解剖

目的：提供带腓浅神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣的形态学依据。方法：在３２侧成人下肢标本上,观测了腓浅神经及其营养血管、周围皮肤的血供情况。结果：腓浅神经（皮下段）近侧的血供为腓浅动脉深支的皮动脉、第１支肌间隔动脉,起始处外径分别为０．８ｍｍ、１．１ｍｍ;第１支肌间隔动脉穿出深筋膜前长为１．８ｃｍ。远侧则为腓动脉穿支之升支、降支的皮支和足背动脉皮支,起始处外径分别为０．９ｍｍ、０．７ｍｍ和０．８ｍｍ,穿出深筋膜前长分别为１．２ｃｍ、０．７ｃｍ和０．８ｃｍ。其神经支在神经干内或旁彼此吻合,构成纵向链式血管网,并借分支与皮肤、皮下及筋膜血管网沟通。结论：可设计带皮神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣,顺行或逆行转位修复邻近部位软组织缺损     

基于活体造影数据的股深动脉穿动脉穿支血管的数字解剖学研究

目的　探讨基于活体造影数据重建股深动脉穿动脉穿支皮瓣血供三维数字化模型的可行性,为临床股深动脉穿动脉穿支皮瓣的应用提供解剖学依据。 方法　选择8例需行皮瓣移植的患者作为研究对象,采用DSA结合CT血管成像技术获取一侧大腿二维断层图像数据,应用 Mimics 软件对股深动脉穿动脉及其穿支进行三维可视化重建,利用软件自带测量工具筛选合适穿支。 结果　利用 Mimics 软件成功重建了股深动脉穿动脉及其穿支的三维可视化模型,能清晰显示股深动脉穿动脉及其穿支的分布、走行及穿支穿出深筋膜位置。8例患者中6例发现3支穿动脉,2例发现4支穿动脉。这些穿动脉共发出66支皮肤穿支（以大于0.5 mm为标准）,穿支在穿深筋膜平面内径(0.9±0.26)mm, 穿支浅出深筋膜点主要分布于坐骨结节与股骨外上髁的连线附近。 结论　基于活体造影数据可以重建清晰股深动脉穿动脉及其穿支血管的3D立体影像,可为临床股深动脉穿动脉穿支皮瓣的术前设计与皮瓣切取提供解剖学依据。     

外踝上皮瓣皮支来源的解剖学研究和临床意义

目的　研究外踝上皮瓣皮支的起源,为临床应用提供解剖学依据。 方法　对30侧红色乳胶灌注的新鲜下肢标本进行解剖,对8例接受外踝上皮瓣修复的患者进行术中观测,记录外踝上皮瓣皮支的起始位置、相关动脉外径等数据。 结果　30侧标本中有22侧（73.3%）以及8例手术患者中有5侧的外踝上皮瓣皮支起自腓动脉和胫前动脉在下胫腓联合近侧的动脉弓,另有8侧标本（26.7%）和3侧手术患者的皮支起自腓动脉的骨间膜终末穿支或腓动脉主干。 结论　外踝上皮瓣皮支主要起自腓动脉和胫前动脉在下胫腓联合近侧的动脉弓,临床应用该皮瓣时应注意明确皮支的起源。     

Cutaneous perforators of the peroneal artery: Cadaveric study with implications in the design of the osteocutaneous free fibular flap

Bilateral dissection of 15 formalin embalmed cadaver legs was performed in order to study the anatomic pattern of the peroneal artery (PA) and its cutaneous perforating vessels (CB). The total number of CB from the PA was 125 or an average of 4.17 branches per leg. CB were distributed in the superoinferior axis between 18.25 and 84.25% of the length of the fibula and their average length was 5 ± 1.8 cm. 86/125 (68.8%) of the CB were classified as myocutaneous branches (MC) that penetrated muscle before reaching the skin, whereas 39/125 (31.2%) were septocutaneous branches (SC) that passed through the intermuscular septum. The mean distance between the posterior border of the fibula and the site where the perforators emerged was 1.88 ± 0.79 cm for the SC and 1.21 ± 0.87 cm for the MC. These anatomic findings should encourage the surgeon to design the skin paddle in the boundary between the middle and the distal third of the fibular length about 2 cm behind the posterior fibular border on the posterolateral leg, where the number of CB is maximal. Clin. Anat. 22:826–833, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.