Is television viewing associated with social isolation? Roles of exposure time, viewing context, and violent content

OBJECTIVE: To estimate associations between children's peer integration and amount of time they spend (1) watching television, (2) watching violent television, and (3) co-viewing television with friends. DESIGN: Survey using nationally representative data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics-Child Development Supplement Wave 1. SETTING: Nationwide survey of families with young children performed in 1997. PARTICIPANTS: Of 3562 children, 1356 had sufficient data for inclusion in analyses (563 children aged 6 to 8 years and 793 children aged 9 to 12 years). MAIN EXPOSURE: Total time viewing television, with and without friends present, and time viewing violent and nonviolent television content. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Amount of time children spent with friends as reported in two 24-hour activity diaries. RESULTS: Viewing violent programs (but not nonviolent programs) was negatively related to time children spent with friends (aged 6-8 years, unstandardized regression coefficient [beta] = - 0.34, 95% confidence interval [CI], - 0.59 to - 0.08; aged 9-12 years, beta = - 0.41, 95% CI, - 0.65 to - 0.18). More time viewing television with friends was associated with more time engaging in other activities with friends (aged 6-8 years, beta = 0.98, 95% CI, 0.61 to 1.36; aged 9-12 years, beta = 1.03, 95% CI, 0.72 to 1.34). CONCLUSIONS: The more time that children spent viewing violent programs, the less time they spent with their friends. While this study cannot determine the direction of effects for this relationship, a cyclical process between violent media and peer integration best explains the findings. To optimize social development and mental health, children's access to violent media should be limited.     

Does television affect learning and school performance?

Television is ubiquitous in American households and is becoming a pervasive force in the growth and development of American children. More time is spent watching television than in formal classroom instruction. Early studies, which failed to control for IQ and socioeconomic status, showed variable effects of heavy viewing on school performance. Later, better controlled studies have consistently demonstrated a significant deleterious effect of more than 1 or 2 h/day on academic performance, particularly reading scores. Innovative school programs that teach children how to watch television critically and appropriate management strategies for parents are discussed.     

Effects of television on children and adolescents

The average child born today will, by age 15, have spent more time watching television than going to school. Research has shown that heavy doses of TV violence viewing are associated with the development of aggressive attitudes and behavior. TV viewing also appears to cultivate stereotypic views of gender roles and race. Finally, television commercials often capitalize on children's naivete, and also can foster and reinforce overly materialistic attitudes. All of these adverse effects can be minimized if parents restrict the amount of overall viewing, encourage some programs and discourage others, and talk to children frequently about the meaning of what they see on television.     

Is physical activity differentially associated with different types of sedentary pursuits?

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether there is a relationship between the time adolescents spend in physical activity and time they spend in different sedentary pursuits: watching television, playing video games, working on computers, doing homework, and reading, taking into account the effect of part-time work on students' residual time. DESIGN: Cross-sectional cohort design. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Seven hundred forty-three high school students from 2 inner-city public schools and 1 private school. METHODS: Students completed a self-administered questionnaire that addressed time spent in physical activity, time spent in sedentary pursuits, musculoskeletal pain, and psychosocial issues and were also measured for height and weight.Main Outcome Measure Level of physical activity (low, moderate, high). RESULTS: There were more girls than boys in the low and moderate physical activity groups and more boys than girls in the high activity group. Ordinal logistic regression showed that increased time spent in "productive sedentary behavior" (reading or doing homework and working on computers) was associated with increased physical activity (odds ratio, 1.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-2.4), as was time spent working (odds ratio, 1.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-1.4). Time spent watching television and playing video games was not associated with decreased physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Physical activity was not inversely associated with watching television or playing video games, but was positively associated with productive sedentary behavior and part-time work. Some students appear capable of managing their time better than others. Future studies should explore the ability of students to manage their time and also determine what characteristics are conducive to better time management.     

Television viewing, computer use and total screen time in Canadian youth

BACKGROUND

Research has linked excessive television viewing and computer use in children and adolescents to a variety of health and social problems. Current recommendations are that screen time in children and adolescents should be limited to no more than 2 h per day.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the percentage of Canadian youth meeting the screen time guideline recommendations.

METHODS

The representative study sample consisted of 6942 Canadian youth in grades 6 to 10 who participated in the 2001/2002 World Health Organization Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children survey.

RESULTS

Only 41% of girls and 34% of boys in grades 6 to 10 watched 2 h or less of television per day. Once the time of leisure computer use was included and total daily screen time was examined, only 18% of girls and 14% of boys met the guidelines. The prevalence of those meeting the screen time guidelines was higher in girls than boys.

CONCLUSION

Fewer than 20% of Canadian youth in grades 6 to 10 met the total screen time guidelines, suggesting that increased public health interventions are needed to reduce the number of leisure time hours that Canadian youth spend watching television and using the computer.     

Behavioral correlates of television viewing in primary school children evaluated by the child behavior checklist

BACKGROUND: Television is a source from which children gain information about life and experience different types of behavior. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) has not been used thoroughly to evaluate the behavioral effects of television viewing on children. OBJECTIVE: To examine the competency and problem behavior correlates of television viewing in school-aged children using the CBCL. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Two randomly selected grade schools, one from a high-income district and the other from a low-income district. PARTICIPANTS: Students in grades 2 and 3 and their parents. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A questionnaire on children's time spent watching television and engaging in other daily activities and the CBCL were sent to the parents of 888 second- and third-grade students. RESULTS: Results of the questionnaire reported that the overall mean +/- SD daily television viewing time was 2.5 +/- 1.3 hours. Overall television viewing time had a negative correlation with social and school achievement (r = -0.17, P<.001 and r = 0.11, P =.03, respectively) subscale scores. Withdrawn (r = 0.11, P =.004), social problem (r = 0.14, P =.001), thought problem (r = 0.11, P =.03), attention problem (r = 0.20, P<.001), delinquent behavior (r = 0.12, P<.001), aggressive behavior (r = 0.22, P<.001), and externalization (r = 0.19, P<.001) subscales and total problem (r = 0.15, P<.001) scores were positively correlated with time spent watching television. Stepwise logistic regression analysis revealed that the only significant variables associated with a risk of watching television for more than 2 hours were age, gender, social subscale, and attention problem subscale scores of the CBCL. CONCLUSION: As evaluated by the CBCL, television viewing time is positively associated with social problems, delinquent behavior, aggressive behavior, externalization, and total problem scores. Older age, male gender, and decreasing social subscale and increasing attention problem subscale scores on the CBCL increases the risk of watching television for more than 2 hours.     

Electronic media use by children in families of high socioeconomic level and familial factors

The aim of this research was to describe electronic media access and use among children aged 6 months to 15 years and to identify familial factors. Data was collected with a questionnaire from 724 parents of children seen in the pediatric outpatient clinic of a private hospital while they awaited examination. Questions included electronic media ownership at home or in the child's bedroom, household habits of electronic media use, educational and occupational status of parents, smoking and alcohol consumption at home, and family income. The top three electronic media devices present at home were television, computer and DVD. On a typical day, 32% of children watched television for approximately less than 1 hour, 36% for 2 hours and 22% for 3 hours. Mean television viewing time was 1.89 +/- 0.76 hours. Nearly 12% of parents spent less than 30 minutes with their children, whereas 28% spent 1 hour, and 59% more than 1 hour. Older children spent more time watching television than the younger ones. Forty-six percent of children used computer and the internet at home on a typical day. Almost 20% of children also had a television in their bedroom and spent more time watching television than those without a television in their bedroom, and the ratio increased by age (one-fifth of 3-5-year olds, one-fourth of 6-10-year-olds and half of 11-15-year-olds, on average). The present study provides data for the education and counselling of parents about the use of electronic media by children and it will contribute to increasing the awareness and sensitivity of the population by drawing attention to the subject.     

Television watching at Greek paediatric hospitals

Purpose The study investigated the television watching habits of children in hospital compared with those at home and the factors which influence them.Methods A random sample of 546 school aged children hospitalized in paediatric hospitals (2) in Athens (Greece) was studied.Results Children’s television watching time in the hospital was found to be higher compared to that at home. The characteristics which influence this result are the duration of hospitalization, the television rent, who does the programme selection and the frequency of visits (p<0.001 for all tests).Conclusion Children especially in hospitals should watch television accompanied by their parents/caregivers who should help them to decode the received messages, check the quality of the programmes and intervene in the time spent watching television.     

Factors that affect television viewing time in preschool and primary schoolchildren

BACKGROUND: Excessive viewing of television (TV) has been linked to aggressive behavior, violence and childhood obesity. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among preschool children and primary schoolchildren in Ankara during March and April 1999 to detect the factors that affect TV viewing time and to evaluate their parents' knowledge, attitudes and practices with regard to TV. The parents were asked to fill out a questionnaire about TV habits of their family, the number and location of TVs in the household and the effect of TV on children. Of 400 questionnaires, 350 answered the questions appropriately for this study. Children were divided into two groups, preschool children and primary schoolchildren. Television viewing time was given daily, as a mean of weekday. RESULTS: The mean age for becoming a TV viewer was 2.7 +/- 1.6 years. Of all, 62% of children spent >/= 2h/day watching TV and 8.3% of children spent > 4 h. The TV viewing time of child was significantly and positively correlated with that of siblings, mother and father for both groups. Age and sleeping time of the child, age and the education level of mother, presence of TV in the child's room and the starting age watching TV did not affect the viewing time. One-half of parents reported that the TV programs watched included violence, and one-third thought TV depicts child abuse, especially emotional abuse. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that the TV watching habits of parents had an influence on those of their children. Therefore, pediatricians should take 'TV histories' of children and their parents and educate parents how to become good TV viewers.     

Sexuality, contraception, and the media. Committee on Public Education

Early sexual intercourse among American adolescents represents a major public health problem. Although early sexual activity may be caused by a variety of factors, the media are believed to play a significant role. In film, television, and music, sexual messages are becoming more explicit in dialogue, lyrics, and behavior. In addition, these messages contain unrealistic, inaccurate, and misleading information that young people accept as fact. Teens rank the media second only to school sex education programs as a leading source of information about sex. Recommendations are presented to help pediatricians address the effects of the media on sexual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of their patients.     

Parents rate the ratings: a test of the validity of the American movie, television, and video game ratings

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have documented the potential effects on young audiences of violent content in media products, including movies, television programs, and computer and video games. Similar studies have evaluated the effects associated with sexual content and messages. Cumulatively, these effects represent a significant public health risk for increased aggressive and violent behavior, spread of sexually transmitted diseases, and pediatric pregnancy. In partial response to these risks and to public and legislative pressure, the movie, television, and gaming industries have implemented ratings systems intended to provide information about the content and appropriate audiences for different films, shows, and games. METHODS: We conducted a panel study to test the validity of the current movie, television, and video game rating systems. Participants used the KidScore media evaluation tool, which evaluates films, television shows, and video and computer games on 10 aspects, including the appropriateness of the media product for children on the basis of age. RESULTS: Results revealed that when an entertainment industry rates a product as inappropriate for children, parent raters agree that it is inappropriate for children. However, parent raters disagree with industry usage of many of the ratings designating material suitable for children of different ages. Products rated as appropriate for adolescents are of the greatest concern. The level of disagreement varies from industry to industry and even from rating to rating. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis indicates that the amount of violent content and portrayals of violence are the primary markers for disagreement between parent raters and industry ratings. Short-term and long-term recommendations are suggested.     

Psychosocial correlates of physical activity in healthy children

BACKGROUND: Understanding the determinants of physical activity in children is critical for the treatment and prevention of childhood obesity. Social-cognitive theory has been used to understand behavioral patterns in children. OBJECTIVES: To explore the relationship between health beliefs, self-efficacy, social support, and sedentary activities and physical activity levels in children and to examine the relationship between physical activity and children's self-esteem. METHODS: Ninety-two children aged 10 to 16 years completed the study. Physical activity was monitored for 1 week with a motion detector (Actitrac; IM Systems, Baltimore, Md). Moderate-level activity and high-level activity were defined based on the results of treadmill testing. Health beliefs, self-efficacy, social influences, and time spent in sedentary behaviors were determined through questionnaires. Self-esteem was measured using the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Chronic anxiety was measured with the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. RESULTS: There was a significant decline in physical activity levels between ages 10 and 16 years, particularly in girls. Preteen girls spent approximately 35% more time in low- and high-level activity than did teenage girls (P<.001). Overall, children spent 75.5% of the day inactive, with a mean +/- SD of 5.2 +/- 1.8 hours watching television, sitting at the computer, and doing homework. In contrast, only 1.4% of the day (12.6 +/- 12.2 minutes) was spent in vigorous activity. Time spent in sedentary behaviors was inversely correlated with the amount of moderate-level activity (P<.001) but not high-level activity. In contrast, time spent in high-level activity correlated with self-efficacy scores (P<.001) and social influences scores (P<.005). High-level physical activity was also associated with improved self-esteem (P<.05). Higher health beliefs scores were not correlated with physical activity levels. CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents are largely sedentary. Correlates of high- and low-level physical activity are different. Time spent on sedentary activities is inversely correlated with moderate-level activity, while self-efficacy and social influences are positively correlated with more intense physical activity. In addition, increased high-level physical activity is an important component in the development of self-esteem in children.     

The effects of television food advertisement on children''s food purchasing requests

BACKGROUND: Children's eating habits and their food consumption have direct relations with obesity, diabetes, cancers, hypertension and coronary heart disease. Television advertisements directly affect children's eating habits and their food consumption. This study was conducted in order to examine television advertisements and children's food consumption while watching television and their desire to purchase goods that they see on television advertisements. METHODS: In the first stage of the study, content analysis of the television advertisements was conducted. In the second stage of the study, a questionnaire (check list) was developed in order to examine children's food consumption while watching television and their purchasing requests while shopping in the supermarket. It was given to 347 mothers who have children aged between 3 and 8 years. RESULTS: When the results of the study were examined it was found that the time devoted to children's programs was approximately 121 min and the advertisements during this period were approximately 35 min. A total of 344 of the 775 television advertisements shown were related to food. It was also found that most of the food advertisements were about candy/chocolate, chips, milk and milk products such as cheese, yoghurt, and breakfast cereals. The results also revealed that 89.6% of the children either drank or ate something while watching television and the food they consumed most while watching television were fruits, soft drinks, popcorn/nuts, cake, chips and candy/chocolate. The results also revealed that 40.3% of the children asked their parents to purchase the goods that they saw on the television advertisements and that 8.9% of them argued with their parents and/or cried in order for their parents to buy that particular product. It was found that the children tended to request more sweetened products such as candy, ice-cream, biscuit, cake or soft drinks. CONCLUSION: More than half of the food presented in television advertisements were rich in fat and sugar. Children ask their parents to buy the goods they see on television advertisements both while watching television and while shopping. Television advertisements especially affect young children's unhealthy food consumption.     

Television watching, energy intake, and obesity in US children: results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship between television watching, energy intake, physical activity, and obesity status in US boys and girls, aged 8 to 16 years. METHODS: We used a nationally representative cross-sectional survey with an in-person interview and a medical examination, which included measurements of height and weight, daily hours of television watching, weekly participation in physical activity, and a dietary interview. Between 1988 and 1994, the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey collected data on 4069 children. Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic blacks were oversampled to produce reliable estimates for these groups. RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity is lowest among children watching 1 or fewer hours of television a day, and highest among those watching 4 or more hours of television a day. Girls engaged in less physical activity and consumed fewer joules per day than boys. A higher percentage of non-Hispanic white boys reported participating in physical activity 5 or more times per week than any other race/ethnic and sex group. Television watching was positively associated with obesity among girls, even after controlling for age, race/ethnicity, family income, weekly physical activity, and energy intake. CONCLUSIONS: As the prevalence of overweight increases, the need to reduce sedentary behaviors and to promote a more active lifestyle becomes essential. Clinicians and public health interventionists should encourage active lifestyles to balance the energy intake of children.     

Do we fatten our children at the television set? Obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents

The association of television viewing and obesity in data collected during cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey was examined. Cycle II examined 6,965 children aged 6 to 11 years and cycle III examined 6,671 children aged 12 to 17 years. Included in the cycle III sample were 2,153 subjects previously studied during cycle II. These surveys, therefore, provided two cross-sectional samples and one prospective sample. In all three samples, significant associations of the time spent watching television and the prevalence of obesity were observed. In 12- to 17-year-old adolescents, the prevalence of obesity increased by 2% for each additional hour of television viewed. The associations persisted when controlled for prior obesity, region, season, population density, race, socioeconomic class, and a variety of other family variables. The consistency, temporal sequence, strength, and specificity of the associations suggest that television viewing may cause obesity in at least some children and adolescents. The potential effects of obesity on activity and the consumption of calorically dense foods are consistent with this hypothesis.     

Television viewing in Thai infants and toddlers: impacts to language development and parental perceptions

Background  

Effects of television to language development in infants and toddlers, especially in the Asian children, are inconclusive. This study aimed to (a) study time spent on television in Thai infants and toddlers (age < 2 years), (b) investigate the association between time spent on television (as recommended by the American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP), < 2 hours per day) and language development in Thai 2-year-old children, and (c) explore parental perceptions on television toward their child's development.     

The effects of television viewing in Greece,and the role of the paediatrician: a familiar triangle revisited

To investigate the effects of television (TV) viewing on children, 4876 questionnaires on viewing habits completed by Greek children with the assistance of their parents were analysed. The most important results are summarized below. The mean time spent watching TV ranged from 21–32 h per week. The age when children started watching TV correlated with their later educational achievement: good students started watching TV earlier. Bad students, however, watched more TV, as did children from urban areas, and from lower socioeconomic groups. Children from households with more than one TV (especially if it was in the child’s bedroom) also watched more. Children who watched more TV were less compliant with TV restrictions and more likely to imitate TV characters. Eating while watching TV was associated with obesity only in teenagers. Most children watched TV from appropriate distances, with the lights on, and with the sound at medium volume. Conclusion This study of TV viewing habits in Greek children shows that certain patterns of watching TV may contribute to poor educational achievement, and obesity, in paediatric patients and, therefore, supports the idea of taking „televiewing histories“ when treating these patients. Received: 20 June 1995 Accepted: 26 April 1996     

Television viewing associates with delayed language development

AIM: To identify impact of television viewing on language development. METHODS: The case-control study included 56 new patients with language delay and 110 normal children, aged 15-48 months. Language delay was diagnosed by reviewing language milestones and Denver-II. Television viewing variables and child/parental characteristics between both groups were interviewed. The data were analyzed by ANOVA and chi-square test. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from multivariate logistic regression model. RESULTS: Forty-six boys and 10 girls; mean [+/-SD] age, 2.11+/-0.47 years of the case group and 59 boys and 51 girls; mean [+/-SD] age, 2.23+/-0.80 years of the control group were enrolled. Children who had language delay usually started watching television earlier at age 7.22+/-5.52 months vs. 11.92+/-5.86 months, p-value<0.001 and also spent more time watching television than normal children (3.05+/-1.90 h/day vs. 1.85+/-1.18 h/day; p-value<0.001). Children who started watching television at<12 months of age and watched television>2 h/day were approximately six times more likely to have language delays. CONCLUSIONS: There is a relationship between early onset and high frequency of TV viewing and language delay.     

Recognizing and managing long-term sequelae of childhood maltreatment

Childhood maltreatment is a serious public health problem and represents a significant challenge to pediatricians. Maltreated children present with a variety of emotional and behavioral problems. Pediatricians should screen for risk factors associated with maltreatment and psychiatric sequelae associated with maltreatment. Because of the complexity of psychiatric sequelae in childhood maltreatment, children who have been maltreated will likely require multidisciplinary treatment in mental health care settings. Therefore, pediatricians need to be knowledgeable about mental health services in their communities and actively assist the family in obtaining services. Although we are gaining a more sophisticated understanding of the impact that maltreatment has on the mental health of children and adolescents, much remains to be done. It is critical for pediatricians to work within their professional organizations and their individual communities to address the systemic issues that create barriers to care for patients who have suffered maltreatment. It is also critical for pediatricians to encourage their professional organizations to establish good working relationships with other organizations in areas where they share interest, need, and commitment. Such collaborative relationships at local, state, and national levels can facilitate governmental policy changes that are needed to protect and care for children and adolescents. Only through such efforts can we bring about lasting changes that will support the health and well-being of children and adolescents.     

Physical activity and sedentary behaviors in Polish children and adolescents

ObjectiveParticipating in physical activity (PA) is essential for children's proper development. Promoting physical activity from early school years is considered a highly important prevention task for good health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of PA and sedentary behavior of children and adolescents aged 6–17 years attending primary and junior high schools in Wroclaw, Lower Silesia, Poland. The study assessed the frequency of various forms of PA and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents. The age differences in PA and sedentary behavior in the cohort studied was also analyzed.DesignSurvey study to assess children's and adolescents’ physical activity and sedentary behavior were based on a parent-reported questionnaire.ParticipantsA total of 2913 children and adolescents aged 6–17 years (average age, 11.38 years) from Wroclaw, Poland, who participated in a pro-health campaign “Let's Get the Kids Moving.” This project promotes a healthy lifestyle among primary and middle school students.ResultsThe frequency of physical activity significantly decreased as children grew older (p < 0.0001). As many as 18.6% of adolescents 13–17 years old undertook the recommended level of physical activity less than once a week. Time spent in front of the television or computer by pupils in group 3 was longer than in younger children (p < 0.0001). Nearly 19% of adolescents (13–17 years old) spent 5 h or more daily in a sitting position in front of the television or computer on weekends.ConclusionsPolish children and adolescents do not spend the recommended level of time on physical activity and spend excessive time in front of the television and other electronic devices. The level of physical activity decreases as the number of hours spent in a sitting position increases with increasing age. Actions should be taken to avoid the long-term consequences of these behaviors.