Flexor digitorum profundus tendongrafting (intrasynovial donor tendons)

Traditional single- and two-stage tendon grafting methods for flexor tendon reconstruction have been unable toconsistently restore satisfactory digital flexion. Although multiple factors may affect the ultimate outcome, the role of the donor tendon graft has only recently been examined. Current methods of flexor tendon grafting for failed zone II tendon repairs and neglected flexor tendon lacerations involve the use of extrasynovial donor grafts. Clinical and histological studies have shown significant adhesion formation as a result of early cellular necrosis and peritendinous tissue ingrowth into the extrasynovial donor graft. The formation of these adhesions may result in poor tendon excursion and limited proximal interphalangeal joint rotation. Recent studies have shown that intrasynovial donor tendon grafts are incorporated to the native tendon site by a unique intrinsic mechanism of repair. Improved functional characteristics of increased tendon excursion and increased digital rotation are primarily caused by this paucity of adhesion formation and will hopefully result in improved overall patient outcomes.     

Flexor tendon ruptures in the rheumatoid patient

In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, flexor tendon ruptures are much less common than extensor tendon ruptures. The most common cause of flexor tendon rupture is direct abrasion on a bony prominence. The most common flexor tendon rupture is the flexor pollicis longus (FPL) attritional rupture within the carpal canal. The best treatment for flexor tendon rupture is prevention. Flexor tenosynovectomy is indicated when medical management does not control wrist tenosynovitis. A variety of techniques are available for reconstruction of flexor tendon ruptures. Irrespective of the reconstructive method, the results of reconstruction for rheumatoid flexor tendon rupture are poor.     

Studies in flexor tendon reconstruction: biomolecular modulation of tendon repair and tissue engineering

The Andrew J. Weiland Medal is presented each year by the American Society for Surgery of the Hand and the American Foundation for Surgery of the Hand for a body of work related to hand surgery research. This essay, awarded the Weiland Medal in 2011, focuses on the clinical need for flexor tendon reconstruction and on investigations into flexor tendon biology. Reconstruction of the upper extremity is limited by 2 major problems after injury or degeneration of the flexor tendons. First, adhesions formed after flexor tendon repair can cause decreased postoperative range of motion and hand function. Second, tendon losses can result from trauma and degenerative diseases, necessitating additional tendon graft material. Tendon adhesions are even more prevalent after tendon grafting; therefore these 2 problems are interrelated and lead to considerable disability. The total costs in terms of disability and inability to return to work are enormous. In this essay, published work from the past 12 years in our basic science laboratory is summarized and presented with the common theme of using molecular techniques to understand the cellular process of flexor tendon wound healing and to create substances and materials to improve tendon repair and regeneration. These are efforts to address 2 interrelated and clinically relevant problems that all hand surgeons face in their practice.     

介绍一种指屈肌腱Ⅱ区缺损的修复方法

目的 探讨Ⅱ区指屈肌腱缺损的治疗方法和疗效.方法 对19例23指Ⅱ区指屈肌腱缺损患者采用带腱周膜的逆行指浅屈肌腱移植法,进行早期修复和早期功能锻炼.结果 本组随访时间为6～18个月,平均10个月,采用TAM评定标准评价疗效,优良率为91.3％.结论 对指屈肌腱Ⅱ区缺损,本方法可有效地促进肌腱愈合,降低粘连,临床效果好,有推广价值.     

Flexor tendon grafting using a plantaris tendon with a fragment of attached bone for fixation to the distal phalanx: a preliminary cohort study

PURPOSE: Secure methods of graft attachment ensure safe early motion after flexor tendon grafting. This has been achieved at the proximal graft juncture using Pulvertaft's technique. For secure distal attachment, we investigate the results of flexor tendon grafting using the plantaris tendon with a fragment of attached bone fixed with a screw to the distal phalanx. METHODS: Thirteen digits from 10 patients with longstanding flexor tendon injuries in zone II had surgical reconstruction. A plantaris tendon-bone graft was attached to the distal phalanx using a mini-screw. This was followed by immediate active motion. At 3 and 8 months after surgery, total active motion was calculated as the sum of the degrees of active flexion in the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints minus the sum of the degrees of extension deficits for each of these joints. The results of total active motion were compared to the normal contralateral digit. RESULTS: Three months after surgery, the mean rate of recovery, relative to the normal contralateral finger, was 74%, whereas 8 months after surgery, this value was 70%. This difference was statistically significant. There were no failures or poor results (ie, less than 50% recovery). CONCLUSIONS: The tendon-bone plantaris graft employed here ensured immediate active motion and early use of the involved hand in daily activities. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic IV.     

Flexor tendon pulley reconstruction

The flexor tendon pulley mechanism causes the tendons to work with maximum efficiency. Without its competency,flexor tendons will bowstring causing significant losses of digital motion and strength. Without an intact pulley system, increased flexor tendon excursion is required to affect joint motion and flexion contractures may develop over time. Recent investigators have described the properties of the intact flexor pulley system as well as those of flexor pulley reconstructive techniques. Reconstruction of the flexor pulley system should take into account both strength and length of the construct and in most cases a loop of either flexor tendon graft or wrist extensor retinaculum is used. Other methods are available including the use of the palmar plate as well as the superficialis tendon.     

Secondary reconstruction of flexor tendon function in the fingers

Summary Among the various procedures to restore flexor tendon function after failed or omitted primary suture flexor tendon grafting is the most frequently applied technique. It can be performed in an one-stage procedure using a palmaris- or plantaris graft in cases with less scarring or in a two-stage procedure for cases in unsuitable conditions. The main purpose for using silicone rods is to prepare an artificial tendon sheath to avoid adhesions of the tendon graft. The disadvantage of two operations seems to be justified by better results. We performed this technique in 168 zone-II-lesions. According to the Buck-Gramcko score we achieved excellent results in 30,9 % and good results in 25,6 %. In 76 fingers we applied the combination of the Paneva-Holevich technique of using a pedicled superficialis tendon with Hunters method without obtaining better results (22,4 % and 32,9 % respectively). The various techniques of grafting are described as well as indication and technique of tenodesis and alternatively staged procedure for isolated profunda lesions.      

带腱鞘异体肌腱移植的实验研究

目的：探讨深低温冷冻带腱鞘异体肌腱移植的可行性,为屈指肌腱II区腿鞘和肌腱缺损重建提供新的修复材料。方法：将60只北京双A鸡随机分为两组,A组为异体移植,B组为自体移植,每组再分两个亚组,AI全鞘异体肌腱移植,A2部分鞘（滑车A2－A4）异体肌腱移植;B1全鞘自体肌腿移植;B2部分（滑车A2－A4）自体肌腱移植,异体材料采用深低温处理,移植术后进行组织形态学,移植免疫学及肌腱滑动功能检测。结果：A1组和B1组移植术后局部组织反应重,腱鞘形成生物屏障,影响肌腱的营养同腱变性,纤维化,部分坏死,A2组与B2组肌腱愈合良好,组织修复能力强,腱鞘与肌腱间可分离,带部分腱鞘异体肌腱经深低温处理后,其组织抗原性明显降低,组织修复能力同自体移植,愈合后腱鞘与肌腱间隙存在,移植鞘与正常肌腱组织结构相同,结论：带部分腱鞘异体肌腱经深低温处理后可以作为修复腱鞘和肌腱缺损的材料。     

Zone 2 flexor tendon injuries: Venturing into the no man's land

Flexor tendon injuries are seen commonly yet the management protocols are still widely debated. The advances in suture techniques, better understanding of the tendon morphology and its biomechanics have resulted in better outcomes. There has been a trend toward the active mobilization protocols with development of multistrand core suture techniques. Zone 2 injuries remain an enigma for the hand surgeons even today but the outcome results have definitely improved. Biomolecular modulation of tendon repair and tissue engineering are now the upcoming fields for future research. This review article focuses on the current concepts in the management of flexor tendon injuries in zone 2.     

Flexor tendon reconstruction

The hand surgeon's familiarity with options for flexor tendon reconstruction is essential. Efforts at primary repair are not always successful nor are the conditions after injury necessarily conducive to primary coaptation of tendon ends. Single-stage and two-stage grafting, tenolysis, and pulley reconstruction are parts of the reconstructive surgeon's armamentarium. Future interventions of tissue engineering suggest the possibility of creating a theoretically endless supply of available donor material for use in tendon reconstruction.     

Mechanical Properties of Reconstructed Achilles Tendon with Transfer of Peroneus Brevis or Flexor Hallucis Longus Tendon

Treatment of chronic Achilles tendon ruptures can be technically difficult because of tendon retraction, atrophy, and short distal stumps. Surgical repair of chronic Achilles tendon ruptures focuses on local and free tendon transfers, as well as reconstruction with allografts or synthetic materials. This study examined the in vitro mechanical properties of a reconstructed Achilles tendon with the peroneus brevis or the flexor hallucis longus tendons in a human cadaver model. The tendons were harvested from 17 fresh-frozen human cadavers, and the same techniques were used for all of the model reconstructions. Biomechanical measurements included the failure load, stiffness, energy-to-peak load, and mode of failure. The mean failure load was significantly higher in the peroneus brevis group (P = .036), and there was no significant difference in stiffness and energy-to-peak load between the peroneus brevis and flexor hallucis longus groups. In every case, the mode of failure involved the tendon graft pulling through either the distal or proximal stump of the Achilles tendon. The greater failure loads observed with the use of peroneus brevis may not be clinically relevant, however, because of the magnitude of the peak loads observed in the cadaveric model. The present study supports the use of either peroneus brevis or flexor hallucis longus for reconstruction of chronic Achilles tendon ruptures and indicates the need for surgeons to carefully reinforce the attachment of the transferred tendon grafts to the stumps of the Achilles tendon to prevent pullout.     

手屈指肌腱损伤的临床修复效果

本文介绍了手屈指肌腱的修复方法和效果。屈指肌腱修复现存问题包括修复腱的断裂、粘连形成和关节僵硬。我们提倡采用多束肌腱缝合法将部分重要的滑车结构做主动切开,并改良术后锻炼方案。本文概述了今后提高疗效的努力途径。     

Hunter手术治疗Ⅱ区屈肌腱陈旧性损伤

目的：探讨治疗Ⅱ区屈肌腱损伤的较佳方法。方法：采用一期手术切除指深、浅屈肌腱,保留或重建滑车,植入Hunter硅胶棒,2－6月后行二期手术,游离移植肌腱方法治疗Ⅱ区陈旧性屈肌腱损伤69例106指。结果：术后平均随访19例,TAM标准评价取得了84％的优良率。结论：硅胶棒植入手术治疗Ⅱ区屈肌腱陈旧性损伤,可有效避免肌腱移植术后经常发生的肌腱粘连,是一种较好手术方法。     

Spontaneous flexor tendon ruptures of the hand: case series and review of the literature

Spontaneous flexor tendon ruptures within the hand are incompletely understood. We report 5 cases of spontaneous tendon rupture involving the flexor digitorum profundus tendon. One case involves an abnormal intertendinous connection between the ring and small finger profundus tendons and another involves a lumbrical muscle variant. To our knowledge, the latter has not been reported in association with spontaneous tendon rupture. In reviewing the literature for spontaneous flexor tendon ruptures, a total of 50 spontaneous ruptures in 43 cases was found. The majority involve the profundus tendon of the small finger in the palm. The ruptures most often occur during periods of peak strain but can also occur without identifiable trauma. The pathogenesis of spontaneous tendon ruptures is still unclear and is likely multifactorial. Spontaneous flexor tendon ruptures of the hand occur more often than one might recognize.     

Clinical outcomes of chronic Achilles tendon rupture treated with flexor hallucis longus grafting and flexor hallucis longus grafting plus additional augmentation: A meta-analysis

BackgroundThe treatment of chronic Achilles tendon rupture is still controversial. Many surgical procedures have been proposed and claim to have good post-operative clinical outcomes. These techniques include direct repair, V–Y flap, turndown flap, peroneus brevis tendon graft, flexor digitorum longus graft, FHL graft, semitendinosus graft, gracilis tendon graft or synthetic material. The two surgical techniques that are widely used include FHL grafting and the combination of FHL grafting plus additional augmentation. This meta-analysis was conducted with the purpose of comparing clinical outcomes of flexor hallucis longus (FHL) grafting and the combination of FHL grafting with additional augmentation techniques in the treatment of chronic Achilles tendon rupture.MethodsSystematic literature searches were conducted on Medline, Embase and Scopus from their inception to April 4, 2019, and proceedings of reference list and scientific meetings were also searched. Relevant clinical studies (e.g., observational, cross-sectional, cohort or randomized controlled trial (RCT)) that reported AOFAS (American Orthopedic Foot Ankle Score) and postoperative complications of either technique were identified.ResultsSix studies (N = 68) were included for the analysis of FHL, and six studies (N = 124) were included for analysis of FHL with augmentation. A pooling of mean and standard deviation of preoperative and postoperative AOFAS were 57.09 (3.63), 92.97 (22.67) in FHL group and 66.92 (3.16), 95.25 (4.71) in FHL with additional augmentation group respectively. The pooled UMD of AOFAS in FHL with additional augmentation were 2.28 (−1.86, 6.42) scores higher when compared to the FHL group. The prevalence of complications in FHL and FHL with additional augmentation were 14 (N = 120) and 10 (N = 63) patients. The chance of having complications of FHL with additional augmentation group was 0.74 (95% CI: 0.35, 1.56) lower than FHL group. However, there is no statistically significant difference.ConclusionsFHL with additional augmentation group has higher foot function scores (AOFAS) and lower complications when compared to the FHL group. However this did not reach to statistically significant. Further research that assesses a larger sample size of RCTs is necessary to further evaluate FHL with additional augmentation and FHL in the treatment of chronic Achilles tendon rupture.     

The use of Teno Fix tendon repair device in a patient with multiple flexor tendon ruptures

Flexor tendon laceration repairs remain challenging despite numerous advances in hand surgery. Although progress on this vital subject matter has been achieved, there continues to be discussion over which surgical technique produces the optimal result. Currently there are several recommended surgical repair options for the lacerated flexor tendon. However, these repairs continue to have possible significant complications including adhesions, decreased range of motion, gapping, and post operative rupture. Stainless steel suture has long been known as an option for flexor tendon repair. Stainless steel suture demonstrates one of the highest tensile strength sutures. However until recently, stainless steel suture placement for flexor tendon repairs was technically problematic. This case study discusses an additional option for repairing lacerated flexor tendons using an advanced stainless steel tendon repair system.     

Free Graft of Fascial Tube in Flexor Tendon Repair in the Digital Sheath of the Hand: An Attempt at a Composite Tissue Autograft

Various reconstructive methods have been reported for cicatricial tendon beds. Since 1970, when the flexor tendon gliding mechanism of the finger has been damaged in the area of “no man's land” and conditions are less than optimal for conventional tendon grafting, the authors have attempted to graft a fascial tube including tendon and paratenon of the palmaris longus. The technique is described and the results reported.     

The use of Vicryl™ in extensor tendon repairs

Conventionally, tendons are repaired with the strongest possible suture material, usually nonabsorbable in a variety of techniques using two or more strands between the tendon ends. In the initial phase of tendon healing, the repair is almost entirely dependent on the strength of the suture used and sound tendon suturing techniques. While this holds true for the strong flexor tendon system, we question the validity of this approach in the case of extensor tendons. Many of these are flat, and anecdotal evidence suggests that nonabsorbable sutures tend to promote a foreign-body reaction and cause increased tendon tethering. In this article, we seek to confirm that absorbable sutures such as Vicryl™ constitute a superior repair material for extensor tendons.     

Flexor tendon repair in zone II with 6-strand techniques and early active mobilization

PURPOSE: There are many biomechanic studies of 6-strand suture techniques for active mobilization, but few reports have described the clinical outcome in zone II flexor tendon lacerations. We discuss the clinical results of zone II flexor tendon repair using 2 of these techniques followed by controlled early active mobilization. METHODS: Six-strand sutures using the number 1 technique by Yoshizu or a triple-looped suture technique were used to repair flexor tendons in 27 fingers from 21 consecutive patients. Fingers were mobilized by combining active extension and passive or active flexion in a protective splint for the first 3 weeks after surgery. The follow-up period averaged 13 months. RESULTS: Based on the original Strickland criteria, the results were excellent in 17 fingers, good in 9, and fair in 1. The average flexion was 62 degrees for distal interphalangeal joints and 91 degrees for proximal interphalangeal joints. None of the repaired tendons ruptured. CONCLUSIONS: The 6-strand flexor tendon suture technique followed by controlled active mobilization protected with a dorsal splint is safe, produces no ruptures, and achieves very good results in zone II flexor tendon laceration repair. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, Level II.     

Adhesions in a murine flexor tendon graft model: Autograft versus allograft reconstruction

Reconstruction of flexor tendons often results in adhesions that compromise joint flexion. Little is known about the factors involved in the formation of flexor tendon graft adhesions. In this study, we developed and characterized a novel mouse model of flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendon reconstruction with live autografts or reconstituted freeze‐dried allografts. Grafted tendons were evaluated at multiple time points up to 84 days post‐reconstruction. To assess the flexion range of the metatarsophalangeal joint, we developed a quantitative outcome measure proportional to the resistance to tendon gliding due to adhesions, which we termed the Gliding Coefficient. At 14 days post‐grafting, the Gliding Coefficient was 29‐ and 26‐fold greater than normal FDL tendon for both autografts and allografts, respectively (p < 0.001), and subsequently doubled for 28‐day autografts. Interestingly, there were no significant differences in maximum tensile force or stiffness between live autograft and freeze‐dried allograft repairs over time. Histologically, autograft healing was characterized by extensive remodeling and exuberant scarring around both the ends and the body of the graft, whereas allograft scarring was abundant only near the graft–host junctions. Gene expression of GDF‐5 and VEGF were significantly increased in 28‐day autografts compared to allografts and to normal tendons. These results suggest that the biomechanical advantages for tendon reconstruction using live autografts over devitalized allografts are minimal. This mouse model can be useful in elucidating the molecular mechanisms in tendon repair and can aid in preliminary screening of molecular treatments of flexor tendon adhesions. © 2008 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 26:824–833, 2008