Are High-Fat,High-Sugar Foods and Diets Conducive to Obesity?

Restriction of both dietary fat and extrinsic sugars is standard advice for weight reduction. It has been suggested that foods, and diets, that combine high levels of sugars and fat particularly contribute to overconsumption. Weighed dietary data on 1087 men and 1110 women aged 16-64 who took part in the Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Adults were examined for evidence of this hypothesis. Consumption of the main sugary fatty foods (cakes, biscuits, confectionery and puddings) averaged 12% of energy for men, 14.9% for women. Intake of these foods (as a proportion of total energy) was inversely related to BMI (adjusted for age and smoking). After exclusion of the substantial number who were dieting or unwell or who may have under-reported their intakes, the association remained significant only in men. Consumption of sugary fatty foods showed a positive association with intakes of fibre, a negative association with vegetables and no relationship with percentage of energy from fat. For the investigation of diet composition, men and women were divided into four groups, high or low in extrinsic sugars energy (cut point 15%) and fat energy (cut point 40%). For men consuming high fat diets (>40% energy) mean BMI was higher in the low sugar group. After exclusion of dieters and unwell, men with low sugar intakes still had a higher mean BMI than men with high sugar intakes. BMI and extrinsic sugars energy were still negatively but weakly correlated (r = -0.10; P < 0.05) after adjusting for age, smoking, energy, fat intake, and dieting/under-reporting. In conclusion, there is little evidence in this cross-sectional survey that either sugary fatty foods, or diets high in sugars, are associated with obesity. Rather, sugars appear to have a weak negative association with BMI that is not totally explained by confounders such as dieting, under-reporting or the inverse correlation between energy from sugars and fat.     

Dietary guidelines and food nutrient intakes in Portugal

The average intakes of nutrients by a group of 489 adult Portuguese (> or = 40 years) living in a metropolitan area of Northern Portugal were studied using a food frequency questionnaire, and used to compare with the most recent recommendations for the same population by the National Council of Food and Nutrition. The data suggested a relative concordance between consumption levels and nutritional goals, however we found differences between subgroups of the population. Higher intakes of total fat and saturated fat, and lower intakes of fibre/energy and carbohydrates were shared by younger people (40-55 years), and higher intakes of total fat, saturated fat, fibre/energy, protein and carbohydrates and lower intakes of alcohol by women. Nutrients have been analysed in terms of the percentage contribution to total energy intake, but as alcohol is energy dense, its consumption can decrease the proportion of the energy intake from nutrients other than alcohol, and some caution must be taken in interpreting these results.     

The nutrient and food intakes of 16–17 year old female dieters in the UK

A group of female teenage dieters was isolated from a larger national dietary survey of teenagers at 16–17 years of age. The dieting group included girls who both claimed to be dieting and who had energy intakes which were considered appropriate for weight loss, based on calculated reported energy intake to estimated basal metabolic rate cut-off points. The nutrient intakes and food choices of dieters (n= 204) were compared with a similar sample of non-dieters (n= 226) from the same cohort group. The mean reported energy intake of the dieters was 1604 kcals/day compared to 2460 kcals/day amongst non-dieters. The intakes of all the macronutrients in g/day were considerably lower amongst dieters, allowing for differences in region and social class, but when expressed as a percentage of energy intake, dieters had significantly lower intakes of fat and higher intakes of protein and intrinsic sugars, milk sugars and starch. No differences were seen in the percentage of energy provided by non-milk extrinsic sugars between the two groups. The intake of all micronutrients was substantially lower amongst dieters, allowing for regional and social class differences, and more than twice as many dieters as non-dieters failed to achieve the reference nutrient intake (RNI) for retinol equivalents, thiamin, riboflavin, folates, vitamin B12, vitamin B₆, zinc, copper and selenium. Reported food intake data for the two groups suggest that dieters consumed smaller quantities of most foods, although intakes of items associated with dieting such as low calorie soft drinks, low fat spread, skimmed milk, cottage cheese, yoghurt, salad vegetables, fruit and fruit juice were consumed in equal or greater amounts by dieters. Teenage dieters should be encouraged to include more nutrient-dense foods in their diets such as fortified breakfast cereals and low fat dairy products in order to obtain sufficient micronutrients from a lower calorie intake.     

Diet and nutrient intakes in urban women of Rajasthan State,Northern India

Dietary and nutrient intakes of adult women have not been studied extensively which may contribute in increasing burden of morbidity and mortality in women. Present study assessed the diet and nutrient intake of women in the age group of 35 –70 years. Door to door personal contact was done with women in identified locations and background was elicited using a questionnaire. Average intake of different foods and nutrients were recorded using semi quantitative FFQ and compared with Indian standards. Results revealed that average cereal, pulse, fruits, and vegetable intakes were below recommendations. Both energy and protein intakes were inadequate among subjects. Total fat, SAFA, and TFA intakes were higher and PUFA, MUFA, fibre, dietary iron, and folic acid intakes were lower than the recommendations. It was concluded that high fat intake and low fibre, PUFA, MUFA, iron, and folic acid intake may prone this community to diet-related chronic diseases.     

Nutrient intakes in North Glasgow: results from the Scottish MONICA studies of 1986 and 1989

As part of the World Health Organisation MONICA project the nutrient intakes of more than 2000 men and women (aged 25–64) were assessed in two cross-sectional surveys carried out in North Glasgow in 1986 and 1989. Mean energy and nutrient intakes were calculated from food frequency questionnaires and results are reported for each survey year for men and women who received only a school education and those who claimed to have completed further education. Mean energy intakes were lower in all groups in 1989 compared with 1986. Men with only a school education had higher mean intakes of energy, starch, total fat, saturated fat, retinol and cholesterol than men who went on to further education. Men and women who had only a school education had lower mean total fibre and vitamin C intakes than those educated beyond school. The percentage contribution of total fat to energy was higher than recent government recommendations in women but was within the guidelines for both groups of men. However alcohol consumption was generally high in both groups of men and this will have contributed to the comparatively low percentage of energy from fat.
Although the quality of the diet was generally better in those who had received further education, the only evidence of an improvement in diet from 1986 to 1989 was in a lower percentage of energy from total fat and saturated fat.     

Comparison of dietary and non-dietary risk factors in overweight and normal-weight Chinese adults

The aim of the present study was to compare the differences in dietary and non-dietary factors contributing to normal weight and overweight among urban Chinese adults. Two cross-sectional population surveys were carried out in Tianjin, one of the largest cities in China. A total of 2631 subjects aged 25-64 years were selected by random stratified cluster sampling; 398 men and 490 women were overweight, and 886 men and 857 women were of normal weight. The diet was assessed by food weighing plus consecutive individual 3 d food records. Health-related behaviours and anthropometry were assessed. The overweight group had significantly higher mean daily intakes of energy and carbohydrate than the normal-weight group. Overweight men also had significantly higher mean daily intakes of protein and fat than normal-weight men. Age, daily intakes of energy and carbohydrate, and marital status were positively associated with overweight, while occupational and commuting physical activity, as well as smoking, were inversely associated with overweight among both genders. Daily intakes of protein, fat and alcohol were positively related to the incidence of being overweight among men. People with 7-12 years education were more likely to be overweight compared with those with less than 6 years of education. High intakes of energy and carbohydrate among both genders, as well as high intakes of protein and fat among men, and lower levels of occupational and commuting physical activity, being a non-smoker, and partly higher socio-economic status were related to a greater incidence of being overweight in this population.     

Dietary assessment in Whitehall II: comparison of 7 d diet diary and food-frequency questionnaire and validity against biomarkers

The aim of the present cross-sectional study was to examine the agreement and disagreement between a 7 d diet diary (7DD) and a self-administered machine-readable food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) asking about diet in the previous year, and to validate both methods with biomarkers of nutrient intake. The subjects were an age- and employment-grade-stratified random subsample of London-based civil servants (457 men and 403 women), aged 39-61 years, who completed both a 7DD and a FFQ at phase 3 follow-up (1991-1993) of the Whitehall II study. Mean daily intakes of dietary energy, total fat, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid, total carbohydrate excluding fibre, sugars, starch, dietary fibre, protein, vitamin C, vitamin E (as alpha-tocopherol equivalents), folate, carotenes (as total beta-carotene activity), Fe, Ca, Mg, K and alcohol were measured. Serum cholesteryl ester fatty acids (CEFA), plasma alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene were also measured as biomarkers. Estimates of mean energy intake from the two methods were similar in men, and some 10 % higher according to the FFQ in women. Compared with the 7DD, the FFQ tended to overestimate plant-derived micronutrient intakes (carotenes from FFQ v. 7DD men 2713 (SD 1455) v. 2180 (SD 1188) microg/d, women 3100 (SD 1656) v. 2221 (SD 1180) microg/d, both differences P<0.0001) and to underestimate fat intake. Against plasma beta-carotene/cholesterol, carotene intake was as well estimated by the FFQ as the 7DD (Spearman rank correlations, men 0.32 v. 0.30, women 0.27 v. 0.22, all P< or =0.0001, energy-adjusted data). Ranking of participants by other nutrient intakes tended to be of the same order according to the two dietary methods, e.g. rank correlations for CEFA linoleic acid against FFQ and 7DD estimates respectively, men 0.38 v. 0.41, women 0.53 v. 0.62, all P< or =0.0001, energy-adjusted % fat). For alpha-tocopherol there were no correlations between plasma level and estimated intakes by either dietary method. Quartile agreement for energy-adjusted nutrient intakes between the two self-report methods was in the range 37-50 % for men and 32-44 % for women, and for alcohol, 57 % in both sexes. Disagreement (misclassification into extreme quartiles of intake) was in the range 0-6 % for both sexes. The dietary methods yielded similar prevalences (about 34 %) of low energy reporters. The two methods show satisfactory agreement, together with an expected level of systematic differences, in their estimates of nutrient intake. Against the available biomarkers, the machine-readable FFQ performed well in comparison with the manually coded 7DD in this study population. For both methods, regression-based adjustment of nutrient intake to mean dietary energy intake by gender appears on balance to be the optimal approach to data presentation and analysis, in view of the complex problem of low energy reporting.     

Macronutrient intakes among adult Hispanics: a comparison of Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, and mainland Puerto Ricans.

OBJECTIVES. The purpose of this study was to compare energy and macronutrient intakes between adult Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, mainland Puerto Ricans, and non-Hispanics. METHODS. Age-specific mean intakes were estimated based on 24-hour recalls from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES) (1982 to 1984) and the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) (1976 to 1980) and were compared with the use of t tests. RESULTS. Mexican Americans had higher total fat, saturated fat, and monounsaturated fat intakes than did Puerto Ricans and older Cuban Americans. Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans had similar intakes, except for younger Cuban Americans, who had higher total and saturated fat and lower carbohydrate intakes. Cholesterol intakes among Mexican American men and 60- to 74-year-old women were higher than those among other Hispanic groups. Carbohydrate and protein intakes were higher among Hispanic groups compared with those among non-Hispanics while total fat intakes were generally lower. CONCLUSIONS. Since macronutrient intakes differ between Hispanic groups, dietary research, recommendations, and interventions should be targeted to each group individually. Older Puerto Rican and Cuban American adults met population guidelines for reducing chronic disease risk for more macronutrients than any other group.     

厦门地区乳母产褥期膳食营养状况调查

目的调查评价厦门地区乳母产褥期饮食结构和膳食营养状况,并与正常妇女比较,分析营养素摄入满足机体需要的程度以及存在的营养问题。方法采用24h膳食回顾法调查厦门地区40名乳母产后第2天、第7天和第30天的饮食状况,同样方法调查58名同龄健康非孕非产妇女的1日膳食做对照。参考中国食物成分表计算营养素的摄入,与相应人群的膳食营养参考摄入量(DRIs)比较进行评价。结果乳母产后第2天、第7天和第30天能量平均摄入分别达到推荐摄入量(RNI)的86.2%、75.8%和75.4%,对照组妇女能量摄入仅达到RNI的61.9%。乳母蛋白质平均摄入量分别高于RNI(85g)的55.8%、31.5%和22.6%,碳水化物摄入较少。乳母铁摄入量达到RNI标准,烟酸、维生素E和硒的摄入高于RNI水平,维生素C和钙的摄入低于RNI水平。乳母维生素A、维生素E和硒的摄入达RNI的比例高于对照组妇女比例,但维生素C、钙和锌的摄入比例较对照组低。结论乳母能量、蛋白质和脂肪的摄入基本符合DRIs的标准,但三大营养素供能比例不平衡,部分微量营养素摄入偏低,乳母3个时间点大部分营养素摄入变化趋势不明显,乳母大部分的营养素摄入水平较对照组妇女好。     

Food and nutrient intakes in Swedish diabetic children

Food and energy intakes in diabetic children, 7-9 and 12-14 years of age, were studied by the 7-d record method. The mean duration of diabetes in the younger group was 3.0 years and in the older group 4.2. The children had 3 main meals and 3.4 light meals daily. The median daily number of sandwiches was 7, often offered as snacks. All children used a low-fat margarine, low-fat cheese and low-fat milk. Sweets and diabetic food were seldom used. Of the energy intake protein contributed 18 per cent, fat 32 per cent and carbohydrates 50 per cent, including sucrose 2 per cent. Mean daily intake of fibre was 20 g. Compared to healthy children of the same age and from the same areas of Sweden the diabetics had a more regular meal pattern, their energy intakes did not differ, but the diet of diabetics was lower in fat and sucrose and higher in protein. The mean height, weight and BMI did not differ from healthy children.     

Relationship between diet and smoking--is the diet of smokers different?

STUDY OBJECTIVE--The aim was to compare nutrient intakes of smokers, past smokers, and non-smokers. DESIGN--The study was cross sectional and compared nutrient intake by smoking status using data obtained from a concurrent study of diet. SETTING--The study took place in three towns in England: Ipswich, Wakefield, and Stoke on Trent. PARTICIPANTS--Food records were obtained from 1115 men and 1225 women aged 35 to 54 years, representing response rates of 84-86% in the three towns. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS--Diet was assessed using a 24h food record in household measures. For both men and women vitamin C, total fibre, beta carotene, and vitamin E intakes were lowest in the current smokers and highest in the non-smokers with past smokers having intermediate values. Polyunsaturated/saturated fat ratio was lowest in the current smokers. Men who smoked had higher energy intakes than those who did not. The lower fat intakes of beta carotene, vitamin C, fibre, and polyunsaturated fat in the smokers was due to fewer smokers eating a whole range of foods including fruit, wholemeal bread, cereals, and polyunsaturated margarine. Current smokers had a lower body mass index than non-smokers or past smokers despite their higher energy intakes. CONCLUSIONS--Smokers have different nutrient and food intakes compared with past smokers or non-smokers.     

Factors influencing compliance with dietary advice: the Diet And Reinfarction Trial (DART)

Factors influencing compliance with dietary advice were investigated in the Diet and Reinfarcation Trial (DART). In terms of achieved intakes, smokers had a lower mean P/S ratio and fibre intake than non-smokers; manual workers had a lower mean fibre intake than non-manual workers; and obese men had a higher percentage of energy from fat and lower P/S ratio than non-obese men. However the effect of the advice (difference in intakes of those advised and thosen not advised) was similar in smokers and non-smokers and was similar in all social classes. The effect of fat advice was less among obese men than among non-obese men, probably as a result of weight-reducing advice given to all overweight men. Fat advice tended to have a greater effect among those who gave up smoking after their heart attack than among non-smokers and those who continued to smoke but the difference was not statistically significant. This suggests that advice on diet and smoking can be given simultaneously and still be effective.     

Food, beverage, and macronutrient intakes in postmenopausal Caucasian and Chinese-Canadian women

International differences in breast cancer rates and diet, and studies in migrants, suggest that diet may be a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to examine the dietary intakes of women from populations considered to be at different risks for breast cancer. We collected four 24-h food recalls in 3 groups of postmenopausal Canadian women: Caucasians (n = 392), Chinese women born in the West or who migrated to the West before age 21 (n = 156), and recent Chinese migrants (n = 383). Compared to Caucasians, recent Chinese migrants had lower energy and fat intakes and higher protein and carbohydrate intakes. Recent Chinese migrants consumed higher amounts of grains, vegetables, fish, and soy and lower amounts of alcohol, meat, dairy products, and sweets than Caucasians. Western-born Chinese and early Chinese migrants had intakes intermediate between the other 2 groups. The differences in intake between the ethnic groups suggest foods and nutrients that may contribute to the differences in risk of breast cancer between women in Canada and China. Future work will examine whether these dietary differences are associated with biological markers of breast cancer risk.     

Food-based dietary guidelines--the Austrian perspective

Presently, no national dietary guidelines--neither food- nor nutrient-based--exist for Austria. Usually, the recommendations of the German Society of Nutrition are used instead. The determination of national characteristics of nutritional behaviour and food consumption can reveal starting-points for the improvement of nutritional status in Austria. Seven-day weighed records (children and adolescents, n = 2.173) and 24-h-recalls (adults, n = 2.488) were used for the evaluation of nutrient intake and food consumption. For a sub-sample of children and adolescents, results from laboratory assessment of biomarkers were also available (n = 1.400). Based on fat intake, the age groups were divided into low fat intake (less than 25th percentile = 28-34% fat energy) and high-fat eaters (greater than 75th percentile = 38-45% fat energy). Approximately 75% of the Austrian population have fat intakes above 30% of energy intake, older age groups having a higher prevalence of high fat intakes. Intakes of saturated fatty acids reach 40-46% of total fat. The usual intake of dietary fibre in the Austrian population is between 17-21 g/d; some individuals are able to achieve the recommended intakes for dietary fibre, but do not represent a significant majority of the population. The mean intakes of fruits are clearly higher in children and adolescents (10% of total food intake) than in adults (2-6%). Differences in the intake of selected nutrients in foods between low and high fat consumers, unexpectedly, did not result in different plasma concentrations of cholesterol, nor did it result in differences in fat soluble vitamins. Therefore, one of the primary dietary guidelines for Austria should be the reduction of fat consumption, which is also associated with increasing intakes of fruits and vegetables, increasing intakes of dietary fibre and decreasing intakes of cholesterol.     

The diets of pregnant and post-pregnant women in different social groups in London and Edinburgh: calcium, iron, retinol, ascorbic acid and folic acid

Dietary records were obtained twice in pregnancy and once post-partum, from 265 women in all social classes in London and Edinburgh. Some Edinburgh women, and lactating women, showed the higher levels of calcium intake. For iron, retinol, ascorbic acid and folic acid, there was a consistent and significant regional and social class gradient in intakes. This favoured English women in 'non-manual' social groups, leaving the Scottish 'manual' class, after pregnancy, with the lowest intakes. Mean intakes of Ca and Fe were consistently below the current UK recommended daily amount (RDA). Intakes of retinol were all above it, and ascorbic acid intakes ranged above and below the RDA.     

Dietary intakes of Title III meal program recipients and nonrecipients

Nutrient intakes, dietary habits, and the nutrition knowledge and attitudes of elderly recipients and nonrecipients of a Title III meal program were examined. Mean intakes of energy and all nutrients except niacin and vitamin C were higher for recipients, although no statistically significant differences were found. High average intakes of protein, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C were shown among all groups. Low individual intakes were found for energy, calcium, vitamin A, and thiamin. Men consumed significantly more protein, fat, and riboflavin than women. As age increased, intakes of fat, protein, iron, thiamin, and niacin decreased. More than 75% of all subjects had diets rated "fair" or "good." Percentages of kilocalories from protein were above the recommended levels for all groups, and percentages of kilocalories from fat were above recommended levels for all groups except recipient women. Neither the number of meals eaten alone nor living arrangements had a significant effect on the patterns of intake of the nutrients studied. Most of the subjects interviewed did not regularly take vitamin/mineral supplements. Of those who took supplements, most consumed adequate diets. No significant differences were found in the nutrition knowledge or attitudes of recipients and nonrecipients, although recipients had slightly higher scores. Nutrition knowledge scores were above 60% for all groups. Educational attainment was positively correlated with nutrition knowledge.     

Association between dietary fibre and cancer: A case-control study in Malaysia

A case control study to determine the association of dietary fibre and cancer among Malaysians. It was conducted among 100 newly-diagnosed cancer patients admitted to the Radiotherapy and Oncology Ward, Hospital Kuala Lumpur. A total of 100 controls matched with the cases for age, sex and ethnic origin were selected from the Outpatient Health Clinic in Sentul. The subjects were interviewed to obtain information on their habitual dietary intakes and lifestyles. Family history of cancer, smoking habits, and alcohol consumption were found to be significant risk factors for cancer (p<0.05 for all parameters). The mean intake of total energy was higher among men with nasopharyngeal cancer and women with gastrointestinal cancer as compared to their controls (p<0.05 for both parameters). The percentage of energy contribution from fat was higher among cases (35%) than controls (32.1%). The mean dietary fibre intake among cases (10.86 ± 8.90 g/d) was apparently lower than the controls (13.22 ± 5.99 g/d), with significant differences noted for breast cancer and also nasopharyngeal cancer. Women with low fibre intake (<10g/d) had a 2.2 times higher risk of getting breast cancer. There is a need to educate the public to adhere to a wholesome diet, in particular to increase the consumption of high-fibre food for disease prevention.     

Energy intake and dietary macronutrient content in women with anorexia nervosa and volunteers

This study was designed to compare the dietary intakes of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls. Twenty-four patients hospitalized for treatment of anorexia nervosa were compared with 10 normal controls. Patients ate a self-selected diet and maintained their admission weight to within 1.0 kg during this period (19 +/- 3 days). Food chosen by each subject was weighed before and after meals, and intake was determined to be the difference. Intakes of food energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate were calculated. Patients were closely monitored to ensure that no disposal of food occurred. Patients with anorexia nervosa had a mean daily energy intake of 1,017 +/- 54 kcal (mean +/- SEM), significantly lower than the mean energy intake for controls (1,651 +/- 108 kcal). Similarly, mean intakes of macronutrients (41 +/- 4 gm protein, 34 +/- 2 gm fat, and 136 +/- 9 gm carbohydrate) were significantly lower for patients than for controls (68.5 +/- gm protein, 65 +/- 6 gm fat, and 204 +/- 13 gm carbohydrate). However, when protein, fat, and carbohydrate were assessed as a percent of total calories, there were no significant differences between patients and controls. There were also no significant differences in calories consumed per kilogram body weight. Underweight patients with anorexia nervosa who maintain their weight on an unrestricted hospital diet have energy intake per kilogram body weight and dietary macronutrient content indistinguishable from those of normal women.     

Relationships between social class,nutrient intake and dietary patterns in Edinburgh schoolchildren

Social class may have an important influence on dietary intakes and health. Information on specific nutrient differences between children of high and low social classes may help explain health inequalities and identify target areas for nutrition education. In this study, energy and nutrient intakes were estimated in 136 7–8-year-olds, from a range of social backgrounds, using 7-day weighed inventories. A structured questionnaire was used to establish social class. Lower social class children had significantly lower daily intakes of many micronutrients, which nevertheless met dietary reference values, and a higher percentage energy from fat. In addition, lower social class children consumed less breakfast cereal, more full fat milk, were more likely to take school meals and received a greater proportion of energy and nutrients from snacks than higher social class children. Lower social class children were significantly shorter, but this association was independent of diet. The results suggest that lower social class children are a vulnerable group nutritionally. Nutrition education should focus on influencing the dietary patterns of lower social class children to favour a decrease in percentage energy from fat.     

Social and dietary determinants of body mass index of adult Jamaicans of African origin

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationships between body mass index (BMI) and diet, social and behavioural factors among adult Jamaicans of African origin. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Urban communities in Jamaica, West Indies. SUBJECTS: Three-hundred and sixty-three males and 561 females of African origin, aged 25-74 y. RESULTS: Women had higher mean BMIs (27.5+/-6.4 kg/m(2)) than men (23.4+/-4.3 kg/m(2)); 30.7% of women compared with 6.7% of men were obese. There was a tendency for obese men to have higher percentage of intakes from fat and less from carbohydrate, and women reported diets in which the percentage contribution of protein increased significantly with increasing BMI. In multivariate analyses, BMI was not explained by energy but was associated with protein intakes in females only. Predictors of relative weight were inversely related. Social (marital status) and behavioural (cigarette smoking) factors predicted BMI in both genders; older age in men and increased fibre intakes in women were associated with lower BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Social and behavioural factors are important determinants of body weight. Further investigations are needed which consider factors such as physical activity, genetic and other environmental variables as predictors of relative weight.