Intraoperative evaluation of blood flow in the internal mammary or thoracodorsal artery as a recipient vessel for a free TRAM flap

Although the free microvascular transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap is in routine use for breast reconstruction, little is known of its hemodynamics. The purpose of this study was to determine whether any differences exist when the free TRAM flap is anastomosed to the thoracodorsal or internal mammary vessels. The study comprised 25 patients receiving a free TRAM flap for breast reconstruction. The thoracodorsal vessels were used as recipients in 21 patients and the internal mammary vessels were used in 4 patients. Blood flow rate was measured directly in the donor and recipient arteries, and after anastomosis by a transit-time ultrasonic flowmeter (CardioMed). Two- and 3-mm probes were used. The blood flow rate in the donor artery (deep inferior epigastric) before flap dissection was 11 +/- 6 ml per minute (mean +/- standard deviation). The rate was significantly (p < 0.05) lower (5 +/- 3 ml per minute) in the recipient thoracodorsal artery than in the donor, but after transplantation it increased to 14 +/- 5 ml per minute (p < 0.05), attaining the same value as the donor artery. The blood flow rate in the intact internal mammary artery was significantly higher (25 +/- 10 ml per minute) than in the donor and thoracodorsal arteries, but after anastomosis it dropped to the same value (12 +/- 3 ml per minute; p < 0.05) as the donor artery. The intake of blood in TRAM flaps supplied by the intemal mammary artery seems to be no greater than that in free flaps anastomosed to thoracodorsal vessels, although the flow in the internal mammary artery was much higher. The authors concluded that the blood supply in a free TRAM flap is independent of the flow in the recipient artery and that thoracodorsal vessels, although often in a scarred bed and radiated, are as suitable for anastomosing a free TRAM flap as are internal mammary vessels.     

Functional evaluation of microvascular free flaps with positron emission tomography.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to assess blood flow (BF) of microvascular free flaps studied with positron emission tomography (PET) in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancer (HNSCC) undergoing major radical surgery 3-4 weeks after high-dose radiotherapy. METHODS: Five patients underwent resection of the HNSCC of the oral cavity followed by microvascular reconstruction with a radial forearm flap. Regional BF in oral and neck tissues was measured with PET using radiolabelled water ([15O]H2O) twice (1-2 and 12-14 days, respectively) following radical surgery. RESULTS: In the first postoperative PET study, the median BF in the cutaneous flap area was 5.1 mL/100 g/min, and in the muscle contra-lateral to the recipient site 19.9 mL/100 g/min. A low flap-to-muscle BF ratio appeared to correlate with circulatory incongruity, and thus with poorer flap success. The follow-up study on the second postoperative week supported the results of the primary PET scan. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study suggests that PET using [15O]H2O is a feasible method to quantitatively evaluate BF of the whole free flap in patients operated on for oral     

Internal mammary artery and vein: recipient vessels for free tissue transfer to the head and neck in the vessel-depleted neck

BACKGROUND: Microvascular free tissue transfer is a standard reconstructive option for postablative defects of the head and neck. However, the success of this surgery requires suitable recipient vessels in the cervical region. This form of reconstruction can be particularly challenging in the vessel-depleted neck. While the internal mammary artery and vein (IMA/V) have been used extensively in breast reconstruction, there are few reports describing their use in head and neck reconstruction. We report the first case series of the use of the internal mammary vessels for head and neck microvascular reconstruction. METHODS: We reviewed 5 cases of free tissue transfers to the head and neck in which extensive prior treatment precluded the use of more traditional recipient vessels in the neck or upper chest. RESULTS: A variety of free flaps were transferred for different reconstructive problems which included: chin/lower lip (n = 2), closure of widely patent tracheoesophageal puncture sites (n = 2), and pharyngoesophageal reconstruction following staged repair of a severe stenosis (n = 1). The radial forearm free flap was transferred in 4 patients and the rectus abdominus free flap in 1 patient. The IMA/V on the right side was prepared in all cases. All free flaps were successfully revascularized without the need for vein grafts and without the need for any microvascular revision procedures. CONCLUSION: The internal mammary artery and vein provide reliable, easily accessible recipient vessels for microvascular reconstruction in the vessel-depleted neck. The selection of free flap donor sites with long donor vessels facilitates the microvascular repair.     

Creating two independent fasciocutaneous free flaps from a single radial forearm donor site

The authors describe the creation of two independent fasciocutaneous free flap units from a single radial forearm donor site. After the radial forearm flap is elevated in the standard manner, based on the entire length of the radial artery, the individual flap units are developed as island flaps based on the proximal and the distal radial artery respectively by transecting the radial artery, its accompanying veins, and the cephalic vein. Thus, two independent radial forearm free flaps are created from a single donor site: The proximal one has antegrade flow and the distal one has retrograde flow. The individual free flap units were transferred, and microvascular anastomoses were performed simultaneously by two surgical teams. This technique was used in 2 patients presenting with bilateral foot defects that required reconstruction with a thin, reliable flap such as the radial forearm flap.     

Incidence and significance of microscopic pathological lesions found in pedicle and recipient vessels used in microsurgical breast reconstruction

The purpose of this study was to assess the incidence of abnormal vascular histology and to determine whether or not this was correlated with the incidence of postoperative microvascular problems. The microvascular histology of both donor and recipient vessels was studied in 38 patients (40 flaps) undergoing breast reconstruction with free TRAM flaps. Preoperative risk factors were assessed and correlated with histological changes in vessels, and both were tested against anastomotic complications. Thrombosis of either the artery or the vein of the flap was seen in 6 cases (15%), and of these, two flaps failed completely and one suffered partial necrosis. The occlusion affected the arterial anastomosis in 3 patients, and the venous anastomosis in 2 patients, while both the artery and the vein were thrombosed in one case. Preoperative risk factors such as smoking, obesity, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy were not associated with a significantly higher incidence of thrombosis or with significant histological abnormalities in vessels (P value varied between 0.3-0.06). Microvascular histology showed variable degrees of pathological changes in six flaps (15%); nevertheless, in this group, only one flap suffered a venous thrombosis, which ended in total flap loss. Among those with one or more risk factors (24 patients), only 2 had some evidence of histological abnormality of the blood vessels used for the microvascular anastomosis (P = 0.2).     

Free lateral supramalleolar flap transfer as a small,thin flap

Lateral supramalleolar flaps were elevated as free flaps and transferred with microvascular anastomoses in 3 patients. The peroneal vessels were used for the vascular anastomosis. In all patients, the flaps survived completely. The free lateral supramalleolar flap is thinner than the peroneal flap and is as thin as the radial forearm flap. This flap is useful when thin, small flaps are required, and may be a valuable alternative to the radial forearm flap because it necessitates less donor site morbidity.     

Free forearm flap for reconstruction of soft tissue defects concurrent with improved peripheral circulation

The free forearm flap is an accepted procedure for covering defects due to osteitis in the lower leg. End-to-end anastomoses have usually been preferred, if the diameters of the donor and recipient arteries are more or less equal. However, if one or more arteries of the lower leg are absent, end-to-end anastomosis is not indicated, because further disturbances of blood circulation will ensue. We present a procedure in which the flap vessels act as an arterial and venous bypass, thus improving the circulation in the lower leg, while concurrently perfusing the flap. Following full thickness skin graft, cosmetic results at the donor site are not especially pleasing. Results can be improved by a split skin graft (used as a mesh graft), and by situating the donor site on the upper third of the forearm. At the recipient site, the flap can be infolded and connected in anatomic right or reverse directions, depending on the required length of the flap vascular pedicle needed for reconstruction. This can lead to a reverse blood flow in he vessels of the transferred free forearm flap. The radial artery can be restored by vein graft from the same forearm. In 25 free forearm flaps to the lower leg, arterial bypass was performed in 14 cases, venous bypass as well in four cases, with reverse blood flow in three cases.     

Internal arteriovenous fistula within a radial forearm flap--a novel technique to increase femorodistal bypass graft flow to the diabetic foot and flap covering ischaemic tissue loss.

BACKGROUND: The fascio-cutaneous radial forearm flap is especially suitable to rebuild the contour of the foot, but because of low natural low flow this flap lacks the beneficial effect of large muscle flaps on bypass graft flow. The aim of this study was to introduce a novel technique of flap coverage combined to vascular bypass: an internal av-fistula was created within a radial forearm flap. METHODS: Nine critically ischaemic limbs were treated with a modified radial forearm flap in the Department of Plastic and Vascular Surgery, Helsinki University Central Hospital 1998-2003. All the patients were candidates for a major amputation unless this combined operation was attempted. A two-team approach was used: the vascular surgeon performed the distal bypass and the radial forearm flap was raised by the plastic surgeon. In eight cases a femorodistal bypass was performed and in the ninth the vein graft supplied the flap directly. The internal fistula within the flap was created between the distal end of the radial artery and either the cephalic vein or the concomitant vein of the radial artery. Flow was measured during surgery. RESULTS: Vein graft flow increased significantly after the radial forearm flap anastomosis (76 vs 44 ml/min, p=0.016). The flow of both the bypass graft and the flap artery were higher with the av-fistula patent (p=0.016 and p=0.004). Graft patency was 89% at 2 years. Infection was a major cause of amputation, 1- and 2-year limb salvages being 67 and 53%. CONCLUSION: In a group of diabetic patients increased flow in a vascular bypass graft was achieved by an internal av-fistula within a radial forearm flap. This method is useful in selected cases with poor run off and large ischaemic lesions.     

Usefulness of color Doppler sonography for assessing hemodynamics of free flaps for head and neck reconstruction

This report focuses on the monitoring of intraoperative and postoperative hemodynamics of free flaps for repair of head and neck defects by color Doppler sonography (CDS). The study group included 20 patients with head and neck cancer who underwent resection and reconstruction with free flaps. The hemodynamics in the feeding arteries of the flaps were measured during the following six stages: before surgery, immediately after microvascular anastomosis, and on postoperative days 1, 3, 5, and 7. The pulsatility index (PI) was used as the index for measuring changes in hemodynamics over time. Grafts showed the maximal PI immediately after vascular anastomosis. PI decreased over 3 to 7 days. Of the 20 patients, 1 patient in whom the hypopharynx was reconstructed with the radial forearm flap developed venous occlusion. This was diagnosed during the early stage using CDS, allowing the flap to be saved. CDS proved to be very useful for real-time observation of the hemodynamics in free flaps.     

Experiences with the flow‐through radial forearm flap as a bridge in lower extremity reconstruction

Various techniques have been proposed in order to overcome recipient vessel problems in microsurgery. In cases with no suitable recipient vessels close to the defect, the flow‐through flap is a valuable and reliable alternative for accessing healthy recipient vessels in a single stage. We describe our experiences with combined flaps and discuss the advantages of the flow‐through radial forearm flap as a bridge. Between 2003 and 2009, eight combined flaps were used to reconstruct soft‐tissue defects of lower extremities. Seven patients had acute or subacute wound with exposed bone and vascular injury caused by trauma, one had a chronic nonhealing wound. The flow‐through radial forearm flap was used as a bridge flap with combined a cover flap in all cases. Radial forearm flaps provided recipient vessel lengthening. In one patient, the distal ALT flap failed and replaced with latissimus dorsi flap. Other postoperative courses were uneventful and all of flaps survived. In one patient although the flaps were healthy, sepsis developed and the extremity was amputated. Recovery and ambulation were achieved in the remaining patients. Combined flaps with the flow‐through radial forearm flap are an appropriate technique for overcoming recipient vessel problems. Although the technique involves a more complicated procedure and increases the number of microvascular anastomoses, it is a valuable, safe and comfortable alternative in selected cases. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 36:128–133, 2016.     

Duplex ultrasound imaging in free transverse rectus abdominis muscle, deep inferior epigastric artery perforator, and superior gluteal artery perforator flaps: early and long-term comparison of perfusion changes in free flaps following breast reconstruction

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to assess the hemodynamic differences in free DIEP (deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap), S-GAP (superior gluteal artery perforator flap) flaps versus TRAM (transverse rectus abdominis muscle) flaps and to analyze any perfusion change due to perforator dissection (study 1). To examine the hypothesis as to whether flap perfusion is maintained through the pedicle (study 2), we also compared short- and long-term DIEP flap perfusion. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Blood volume flow, velocity, and diameter of the donor and recipient vessels of 4 TRAM flaps, 5 S-GAP flaps, and 17 DIEP flaps were examined preoperatively on day 5 and also 18 months postoperatively using duplex ultrasound. RESULTS: The greatest volume flow and velocity are measured in the TRAM flaps, followed by S-GAP and DIEP flaps. Blood flow in the musculocutaneous and perforator flaps is twice as great as in the donor vessels, which is proof of flap hyperperfusion. SUMMARY: The minimum perfusion requirement is easily satisfied in musculocutaneus and free perforator flaps. In the long term, DIEP flap perfusion increases 13%, which assumes that DIEP flap perfusion is maintained on the pedicle.     

Topographical anatomy of the anconeus muscle for use as a free flap

A small triangular anconeus muscle in the depth of the elbow is a continuation of the triceps brachii muscle and takes part in extension of the forearm. It is utilized clinically by certain surgeons as a muscle pedicle flap to cover defects around the elbow. However, there has been no report of an anconeus muscle free flap. This study provides the detailed anatomy of the anconeus muscle to encourage a safer utilization of it as a free flap. Thirty-four cadaveric upper extremities were treated by injections of colored latex, lead oxide, and methylene blue into the axillary artery. The average size of the muscle was 73.11 +/- 10.32 mm x 27.39 +/- 3.29 mm and the total area was 2002.48 +/- 33.95 mm2. The muscle received its blood supply from three sources: recurrent posterior interosseous artery, medial collateral artery, and posterior branch of the radial collateral artery. The recurrent posterior interosseous artery was constantly present. Its average outer diameter was 1.11 +/- 0.32 mm and its average length was 29.05 +/- 9.29 mm. The anconeus muscle free flap is large enough to cover a defect of 25.65 cm2 in either the hand or forearm, and the recurrent posterior interosseous artery and venae comitantes are suitable for microvascular anastomosis.     

改良桡动脉穿支皮瓣在修复额面部组织缺损中的应用

目的 探讨改良桡动脉穿支皮瓣在修复额面部中小面积缺损中的临床应用.方法 以桡动脉腕上皮支动脉和桡动脉伴行静脉为蒂.通过筋膜蒂营养的前臂近端桡侧皮瓣(最大面积10 cm×5 cm),游离移植修复额面部肿瘤切除后的组织缺损10例.结果 修复额部缺损6例,面颊都缺损4例,术后皮瓣全部存活,经随访6～12个月后行皮瓣修薄整形术.10例病例经8～18个月随访,平均随访11.3个月,其中7例于术后6～9个月进行二次整形.所有病例皮瓣柔软,瘢痕不明显,皮色与面颊部基本接近,皮瓣两点分辨率在20～40mm.结论 改良的前臂桡动脉穿支皮瓣是修复额面部中小面积缺损的主要方法之一.     

Free radial antebrachial flap. A retrospective study of 48 cases. Practical applications]

The authors have studied 48 chinese forearm free flaps operated since 1982 at St-Louis, Hospital Paris. Analysis of early complications and failures shows that the few problems that occurred seem to involve hemodynamics more than technical problems. The results support the hemodynamic theory about radial forearm free flaps: low-flow flap which contrasts with the wide diameter of the radial artery. This kind of free flap may not support interpositional vein graft for arterial bridging (stasis, distension of the graft then thrombosis), which must be taken into account in the operating procedure. When the radial artery needs to be lengthened, we therefore systematically reduce the risk of thrombosis by re-establishing radial artery outflow for safety: either by distal radial artery anastomosis, or with an arteriovenous shunt.     

Musculocutaneous flaps in head and neck reconstruction.

The introduction of musculocutaneous flaps to head and neck reconstructive surgery is described. The flaps available are listed, and the most important ones described and illustrated. Both the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major flaps are felt to have a role in head and neck reconstruction, though they have largely been superseded by microvascular free flaps such as the radial forearm flap.     

Ulnar versus radial forearm flap in head and neck reconstruction: an experimental and clinical study.

BACKGROUND: To consider the pros and cons of the microvascular ulnar forearm flap compared with its radial counterpart, this study compares the use of these two flaps for head and neck reconstruction. METHODS: In 75 patients, 51 ulnar and 24 radial forearm flaps were used. Both groups were compared regarding flap dissection, suitability of the flap for the recipient region, complication rate, and secondary morbidity in the donor region. Furthermore, in 40 healthy volunteers, the thickness of the subcutaneous tissue layer was measured by use of ultrasonography. RESULTS: Flap survival rate, respectively wound healing, in the recipient region showed no differences. Clinical and experimental results demonstrated a thinner subcutaneous layer in the ulnar aspect of the forearm. Compared with its radial equivalent, closure of the ulnar donor side by skin grafting resulted in a significantly lower complication rate. CONCLUSIONS: The ulnar forearm flap is favored because of the less hairy skin of the ulnar forearm region, the thinner layer of subcutaneous tissues, and the more conveniently located donor area. The ulnar forearm pedicle is long compared with alternative transplants but shorter than the radial equivalent.     

Thoracoacromial vessels as the recipients for supercharged muscle-sparing transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flaps

We describe the use of the thoracoacromial vessels in microvascular transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap breast reconstruction in two cases. The thoracoacromial vessels, used as recipient vessels for supercharged TRAM flaps, offer several advantages. Their location high on the anterior chest wall is ideal for anastomotic repair under the microscope and lends itself to medial placement of the TRAM flap. The thoracoacromial vessels are relatively easily exposed and are suited for microsurgical anastomosis by virtue of their caliber and topology. The dissection of these vessels takes less time than either the internal mammary or thoracodorsal systems. The location of the thoracoacromial vessels allows the flexibility of using either the ipsilateral pedicle for supercharging (deep inferior epigastric vessels on the same side as the superior epigastric pedicle) or contralateral supercharging (deep inferior epigastric vessels on the opposite side of the superior epigastric pedicle). The thoracoacromial vessels make an excellent alternative recipient for microvascular anastomosis in breast reconstruction.     

Effect of radial artery harvesting on tissue perfusion and function of the hand.

This study was designed to measure the degree to which hand and forearm blood flow is reduced following harvesting of the radial artery in myocardial revascularization surgery and determine whether there is an effect on hand function.Twenty patients who had the radial artery used for myocardial revascularization underwent bilateral blood flow assessment of hands and forearms using Technetium-99m human serum albumin and clinical evaluation of hand function.Mean tissue perfusion in ml/100 ml/min +/- SD was as follows: donor hand 21.9 +/- 5.6, non-donor hand 25.5 +/- 6.1 (P = 0.00043), donor arm (hand and forearm) 17.5 +/- 3.7 and non-donor arm (hand and forearm) 21 +/- 5.1 (P = 0.000681). No clinical evidence of hand claudication was detected.This study suggests that removal of the radial artery reduces the tissue perfusion of the hand and forearm but does not affect hand function in the short term. The use of radial artery grafts in patients at risk of developing peripheral vascular disease should be carefully considered     

Free microvascular TRAM flaps for breast reconstruction: the first 50 patients

Skin blood flow in the free TRAM flap has been shown to be superior to that in the pedicled TRAM flap, and in 1990 the free TRAM flap was adopted as the procedure of choice for breast reconstructions. The findings in the first 50 patients whose breasts were reconstructed with free microvascular TRAM flaps are reported. Although 92% of the patients had undergone previous axillary operation and 78% had received radiotherapy, recipient vessels could be found in all axillae. Fortyeight patients had unilateral and two bilateral reconstructions. Reduction or mastopexy was performed on the opposite breast in 50% of the patients. One flap was lost. Skin edge necrosis was found in two patients. Acceptable results with good symmetry or slight asymmetry were achieved in 96%. Seven patients had abdominal laxity due to use of Gore-Tex sutures for closure. Abdominal wall complications ceased once the suture material was changed. The complication rate decreases quickly, as experience increases. Nineteen immediate postoperative or later complications occurred in the first 25 free TRAM flap patients but only 5 in the second 25 patients. The free TRAM flap results in fewer skin problems and is an easier operation for the patient than a pedicled TRAM.     

Microsurgical second dorsal metacarpal artery cutaneous and tenocutaneous flap for distal finger reconstruction: anatomic study and clinical application

In this paper, we report on the anatomical study of 34 cadaveric forearms with red latex injection and the clinical application of this study to 11 cases of microsurgical second dorsal metacarpal artery (SDMA) flaps. There were 8 cutaneous cases and 3 tenocutaneous cases using SDMA flaps for distal finger reconstruction. The SDMA was classified into 2 types and 4 subtypes according to its anatomical origin and course. Type I (76.5%) originated from the dorsal branch of the radial artery at the snuffbox. Type II (23.5%) originated from the perforating branch of the deep palmar arch at the bases of second and third metacarpal bones. Diameter of the SDMA was 1.2 +/- 0.2 mm at its snuffbox origin, and 1.0 +/- 0.1 mm at the base of the second and third metacarpal bones. Clinically, microsurgical SDMA free flaps were raised and transferred for repair of finger injuries. Ten flaps survived completely. One flap failed due to thrombosis of vascular anastomosis. In conclusion, the second dorsal metacarpal artery is a constant and reliable vessel for microvascular anastomosis in microsurgical SDMA flap transfer. This flap can be used as an alternative for hand and finger reconstruction, and especially repair of a distal phalanx, when either an orthograde or retrograde island SDMA flap is unable to reach the defect.