Transesophageal echocardiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale: a comparison with radiological procedures

Objective: The goal of the study was to assess prospectively the value of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) for the diagnosis of massive pulmonary embolism complicated by acute cor pulmonale. Design: A prospective study conducted on 44 consecutive patients. Setting: A general intensive care unit (ICU) of a university hospital. Patients and methods: Between May 95 and October 96, 44 consecutive patients with clinically suspected acute pulmonary embolism underwent transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), completed by TEE when acute cor pulmonale was present (30 patients). The results of the echocardiographic studies were compared with radiological investigations by helical CT or contrast angiography. Results: The high sensitivity and specificity of the presence of acute cor pulmonale on TTE for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism was confirmed. Nineteen patients only underwent TEE. The sensitivity and the specificity of TEE in detecting a proximal pulmonary embolism were 84 % and 84 %, respectively. Its main limitation concerned the left pulmonary artery, in which only one thrombus was visualized by TEE whereas six were present on helical CT, and lobar pulmonary arteries which could not be visualized with TEE. Thus, the overall sensitivity of TEE for the detection of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale was only 58 %. Conclusion: In comparison with radiological procedures, TEE had limited accuracy for detecting pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale. When the pulmonary embolism was located in the main or right pulmonary artery, TEE could clarify the diagnosis within a few minutes without further invasive diagnostic procedures. However, a negative TEE did not exclude left proximal or lobar pulmonary embolism. Received: 28 April 1997 Accepted: 28 November 1997     

Morphologic characteristics of central pulmonary thromboemboli predict haemodynamic response in massive pulmonary embolism

Objective On hospital admission, the morphology of the central pulmonary artery thromboemboli is an independent predictor of 30-day mortality in patients with massive pulmonary embolism (MPE). This may be due to the differential susceptibility of thromboemboli to thrombolysis. The aim of this study was to assess haemodynamic response to treatment in patients with MPE and morphologically different thromboemboli.Design Prospective observational study.Setting An 11-bed closed medical ICU at a 860-bed community general hospital.Patients Twelve consecutive patients with shock or hypotension due to MPE and central pulmonary thromboemboli detected by transesophageal echocardiography who were treated with thrombolysis between January 2000 through April 2002.Procedures Patients were divided into two groups according to the characteristics of detected central pulmonary thromboemboli: group 1, thrombi with one or more long, mobile parts; and group 2, immobile thrombi. Urokinase infusion was terminated when mixed venous oxygen saturation was stabilized above 60% for 15 min.Results At 2 h, the total pulmonary vascular resistance index was reduced more in group 1 than group 2 [from 27±12 mmHg/(l·min·m²) to 14±6 mmHg/(l·min·m²) (–52%) vs 27±8 mmHg/(l·min·m²) to 23±10 mmHg/(l·min·m²) (–15%), respectively, P=0.04]. In group 1 thrombolysis was terminated earlier than group 2 (89±40 min vs 210±62 min, respectively, P= 0.0024). The cumulative dose of urokinase used in group 1 was lower than group 2 (1.7±0.3 M i.u. vs 2.7±0.5 M i.u., respectively, P= 0.023).Conclusion Haemodynamic stabilization is achieved faster in patients with mobile central thromboemboli detected by transesophageal echocardiography during MPE.     

Crossing atrial thrombus in a patient with recurrent pulmonary embolism

OBJECTIVES: To report the detection of a thrombus entrapped in a patent foramen ovale by echocardiography in a patient with recurrent pulmonary embolism. DESIGN: Case report. SETTING: Intensive care unit of a university hospital. PATIENT: A 62-yr-old man with initial deep venous thrombosis and recurrent minor pulmonary embolism followed by a severe embolic event with transitory hemiparesis 10 days after prostatectomy. INTERVENTION: Systemic anticoagulation, surgical removal of a crossing atrial thrombus, closure of a patent foramen ovale, and venous thrombectomy. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Transesophageal echocardiography revealed a large thrombus entrapped in a patent foramen ovale with portions in all four heart chambers. Intraoperatively, a 19-cm-long thrombus, shaped like the pelvic veins, was found. The patient was successfully weaned from cardiopulmonary bypass, requiring temporary positive inotropic support because of right ventricular dysfunction. Within 24 hrs of the operation, the patient was discharged to the intermediate care unit. CONCLUSIONS: Recurrent pulmonary embolism can potentially result in paradoxic embolism in patients with a patent foramen ovale. In such patients, it may be crucial to monitor right ventricular function and exclude right-to-left shunts by transesophageal echocardiography, regardless of clinical symptoms. The patent foramen ovale should be closed. This case emphasizes an important indication for transesophageal echocardiography in critically ill patients.     

Recurrent pulmonary embolism originating from right atrial myxoma.

The use of transesophageal echocardiography is a useful adjunct to transthoracic echocardiography in the diagnosis and management of right atrial tumors in patients who are thought to have idiopathic recurrent pulmonary embolism, especially with suboptimal transthoracic echocardiography studies. We describe a 30-year-old woman with a history of recurrent pulmonary embolism who was admitted for investigation of pleuritic chest pain in whom transesophageal echocardiography played a critical role in the diagnosis and management.     

Transthoracic echocardiographic demonstration of massive pulmonary thrombus caused by protein C deficiency.

Few cases of pulmonary embolism detected by transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) have been reported. We present a case of a patient affected by pulmonary embolism caused by protein C deficiency. Transthoracic echocardiography showed a thrombus in transit (ie, visualization of a thrombus within the pulmonary artery). A hypercoagulable state caused by deficiency of protein C is a rare cause of pulmonary thromboembolism. Our experience demonstrates a massive pulmonary thrombus resulting from such a deficiency. Transthoracic echocardiography should be considered as the first diagnostic method for patients with suspected pulmonary embolism.     

Right atrial spontaneous contrast: echocardiographic and clinical features

We describe the clinical and echocardiographic findings in eight patients with right atrial spontaneous echo contrast who were identified from 648 consecutive patients undergoing transesophageal echocardiography. Common findings in these patients were right atrial enlargement (8 patients), tricuspid regurgitation (7 patients), atrial fibrillation or flutter (6 patients), elevated right ventricular pressure (5 patients), moderate or severe mitral valve disease (5 patients), and right to left interatrial shunts (3 patients). Right heart catheterization in three patients showed markedly elevated right atrial, right ventricular, and pulmonary artery pressures. Two patients had thromboembolic events — one patient had recurrent pulmonary emboli, and another patient with an atrial septal aneurysm had recurrent transient ischemic attacks. Right atrial echo contrast is an uncommon finding at echocardiography that is associated with severe right heart dysfunction. It may also be associated with paradoxical or pulmonary embolism.     

Venous thromboembolic disease presenting as inferior vena cava thrombus extending into the right atrium

With increasing use of echocardiography, especially transesophageal echocardiography, the diagnosis of intracardiac masses has surged. Masses that are most commonly seen in the atrial chambers include thrombi due to atrial fibrillation, cardiac myxomas often located in the atria, and valvular vegetations of infective endocarditis. In this report we present a case of a patient who developed thrombus in the inferior vena cava that extended up to the right atrium and presented as an apparent intracardiac mass. This mass embolized to the right pulmonary artery shortly after diagnosis resulting in pulmonary embolism, which the patient fortunately survived.     

超声检查在急性肺栓塞诊断中的价值

目的 探讨超声检查在急性肺栓塞诊断中的价值。方法 对临床综合诊断为肺栓塞的82例患者行经胸超声心动图和周围血管超声检查。结果 超声心动图发现右房内血栓1例，肺动脉干或左、右肺动脉栓塞7例，典型右心负荷过重和肺动脉高压25例。周围血管超声发现下肢深静脉和（或）髂静脉内血栓39例。结论 超声检查是急性肺栓塞影像学诊断的首选，是急诊情况下重要、实用、及时的诊断方法，对临床决策有较大帮助。     

超声心动图前列腺素E1试验诊断急性肺动脉栓塞的研究

目的探讨超声心动图评价前列腺素E1（PGE1）试验在急性肺动脉栓塞（APE）诊断中的应用价值。方法采用经胸超声心动图（TTE）检查泰安市中心医院2006年7月至2008年2月疑诊APE患者,顺序选取符合肺动脉高压、三尖瓣反流、疑诊APE的患者56例,TTE观测记录静脉注射PGE,前、即刻、5min、10min、30min时点患者肺动脉收缩压（PASP）数值,以静脉注射PGE,前PASP作为基线,注射后四个时点中任何一点PASP较基线下降幅度〈5mmHg为阳性。PASP较基线下降幅度1〉5mmHg为阴性。以螺旋CT肺动脉造影和（或）核素肺灌注扫描检查为诊断标准,通过ROC曲线评价TTE PGE1试验诊断APE敏感性、特异性。结果56例疑诊APE患者中检出APE患者36例（APE组）,非PE患者20例（NPE组）。注射即刻、5min、10min、30min时,该试验诊断APE的敏感性、特异性分别为77．8％、10．0％,72．2％、30．0％,88．9％、30．0％,88．9％、60．0％。结论1TTE PGE1试验是一种安全、方便、敏感性高的筛查诊断APE的方法。应用PGE,静脉注射30min时超声心动图试验筛查APE具有一定的可行性。     

Role of echocardiography in the diagnosis and treatment of acute pulmonary thromboembolism.

The diagnosis and treatment of acute pulmonary thromboembolism (PE) remains a complex clinical challenge. Many studies have used both transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography as a diagnostic and/or prognostic tool in this common disorder. In patients with central, hemodynamically significant PE, echocardiography can directly visualize thrombus or demonstrate the hemodynamic consequences of PE, whereas in the majority of patients, the sensitivity of echocardiography appears limited. Echocardiography may be useful in assessing the prognosis of patients with PE as well as their response to therapy. Further studies are needed in larger populations of patients to clarify the role of echocardiography in the assessment of patients with clinically suspected PE.     

Contrast transesophageal echocardiographic demonstration of coronary artery fistula within left atrial appendage thrombus in mitral stenosis.

Coronary neovascularization and fistula formation arising from the left circumflex artery demonstrated by coronary angiography is a specific sign for the presence of left atrial appendage thrombus in patients with mitral stenosis. However, the fistula drainage site in the left atrium in relation to the thrombus cannot be ascertained by the angiographic method. We performed transesophageal echocardiography simultaneously with coronary angiography in five patients with severe mitral stenosis and left atrial appendage thrombus. The angiography showed coronary neovascularization and fistula arising from the left circumflex artery in three patients. In these three patients, the transesophageal echocardiography confirmed the presence of a coronary fistula by identifying contrast exuding from the surface of the thrombus. Thus we have shown for the first time the usefulness of contrast transesophageal echocardiography in imaging the exact drainage site of coronary artery fistula from left atrial appendage thrombus.     

左或右肺动脉异常起源于升主动脉的超声心动图诊断

目的分析多普勒超声心动图诊断肺动脉异常起源于升主动脉(AOPA)的准确性,提高超声心动图的首次检出率.方法对经心血管造影或外科手术证实为AOPA的9例患者,回顾性分析其超声心动图表现.结果 9例患者中,右肺动脉异常起源于升主动脉者7例,占77.8%;左肺动脉异常起源于升主动脉者2例,占22.2%.超声诊断正确者7例,占77.8%;漏诊1例,误诊1例,占22.2%.结论多普勒超声心动图技术可以比较准确地诊断AOPA.     

Diagnostic value of transesophageal echocardiography in atrial septal aneurysm

Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography was performed in 40 consecutive adult patients with an atrial septal aneurysm. In 11 (27%) of 40 patients transthoracic echocardiography failed to demonstrate the lesion and the diagnosis was established by the transesophageal approach only. Interatrial shunting, assessed by echocardiographic contrast study and/or color flow mapping, was detected in 13 (54%) of 24 patients on transthoracic imaging and in 29 (76%) of 38 patients during transesophageal echocardiography. Identification of multiple fenestrations (n=9) and thrombi within the aneurysm (n=2) could be achieved only by transesophageal ultrasound. A cerebrovascular event of suspected embolic origin occurred in 20 (50%) of 40 patients; 11 (55%) of the 20 patients had repeated cerebral events. Except for mitral valve prolapse in 2 patients and spontaneous left atrial contrast phenomenon in 1 patient no other potential cardiac source of embolism could be identified by transesophageal echocardiography. A marked thickening of the aneurysm was present in 14 (70%) of 20 patients with a cerebrovascular event versus only 4 (20%) of 20 patients without a cerebrovascular event (p<0,01). The mechanism of embolization may be both primary thrombus formation within the aneurysm and paradoxical embolization through an interatrial communication as suggested by the findings on transesophageal ultrasound in 2 patients. Although the patients of this study represent a highly selected group it may be concluded that atrial septal aneurysm is a cardiac abnormality with embolic potential. Transesophageal echocardiography has to be regarded the imaging method of choice for evaluation of this lesion.     

Paradoxical embolism in the left main coronary artery: diagnosis by transesophageal echocardiography

We describe a patient with a paradoxical coronary embolism diagnosed by transesophageal echocardiography. The patient developed a stroke followed by a myocardial infarction. Coronary angiography showed an obstruction of the left main coronary artery. Transesophageal echocardiography showed the mechanism of the neurologic and cardiac events to be a paradoxical embolism. Emergency surgical retrieval of the thrombus lodged in the left main coronary ostium and of a separate thrombus traversing a patent foramen ovale was performed. To our knowledge, direct visualization of the paradoxical coronary embolism by echocardiography has not been reported previously. We discuss mechanisms responsible for paradoxical coronary embolism and review the literature pertaining to this condition.     

Surrogate markers for adverse outcomes in normotensive patients with pulmonary embolism

BACKGROUND: Although echocardiography has proven utility in risk stratifying normotensive patients with pulmonary embolism, echocardiography is not always available. OBJECTIVE: Test if a novel panel consisting of pulse oximetry, 12-lead electrocardiography, and serum troponin T would have prognostic equivalence to echocardiography and to examine the prognostic performance of age, previous cardiopulmonary disease, D-dimer, brain natriuretic peptide, and percentage of pulmonary vascular occlusion on chest computed tomography. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. PATIENTS AND SETTING: Normotensive (systolic blood pressure of >100 mm Hg) emergency department and hospital inpatients with diagnosed pulmonary embolism who underwent cardiologist-interpreted echocardiography and other measurements within 15 hrs of anticoagulation. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: End points were in-hospital circulatory shock or intubation, or death, recurrent pulmonary embolism, or severe cardiopulmonary disability (defined as echocardiographic evidence of severe right ventricular dysfunction with New York Heart Association class III dyspnea or 6-min walk test of <330 m) at 6-month follow-up. The two-one-sided test tested the hypothesis of equivalence with one-tailed alpha = 0.05 and Delta = 5%. Of 200 patients enrolled, data were complete for 181 (88%); 51 of 181 patients (28%) had an adverse outcome, including in-hospital complication (n = 18), death (n = 11), recurrent pulmonary embolism (n = 2), or cardiopulmonary disability (n = 20). Right ventricular dysfunction on initial echocardiogram was 61% sensitive (95% confidence interval, 46-74%) and 57% specific (48-66%). The panel was 71% sensitive (56-83%) and 62% specific (53-71%). The two-one-sided procedure demonstrated superiority of the panel to echocardiography for both sensitivity and noninferiority for specificity. No other biomarker demonstrated equivalence, noninferiority, or superiority for sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION: Normotensive patients with pulmonary embolism have a high rate of severe adverse outcomes during 6-month follow-up. A panel of three widely available tests can be used to risk stratify patients with pulmonary embolism when formal echocardiography is not available.     

Mechanism and incidence of notched pulmonary venous atrial reversal wave.

In certain patients, pulmonary venous flow pattern obtained by the pulsed wave Doppler during transesophageal echocardiography shows a notching on the atrial reversal (A) wave. However, the incidence or the mechanism of this notched A wave has not been described. After transthoracic echocardiographic evaluation for the chamber sizes, wall thickness, and left-ventricular function, transesophageal echocardiography was performed in 100 patients with in sinus rhythm. Discernible pulmonary venous A wave was observed in 46 patients. Among these 46 patients, notched A wave was observed in 11 (31%). In 4 patients with notched A wave, left-atrial pressure waveforms could be obtained during mitral balloon valvuloplasty. In all these patients, left-atrial pressure waveforms showed prominent c waves. In 2 patients, transesophageal echocardiography was repeated after mitral balloon valvuloplasty. Late peak of the notched A wave decreased with the decrease in the magnitude of rise in left-atrial c wave. Among the transthoracic echocardiographic parameters, patients with notching (n = 11) had significantly larger left atriums than patients without notching (n = 35)(49.3 +/- 6.2 vs 37.3 +/- 4.4 mm, P <.0001). There were no significant differences in left-ventricular dimensions, wall thickness, and ejection fraction. In conclusion, notched pulmonary venous A wave indicates the presence of left-atrial c wave; and presence of left-atrial c wave may represent decreased left-atrial compliance.     

超声在诊断肺动脉栓塞中的应用研究

目的 探讨无创心血管超声在肺动脉栓塞诊断中的应用价值。方法 对临床综合诊断的35例肺动脉栓塞患者进行经胸超声心动图和下肢深静脉超声检查。结果 超声心动图发现11例肺动脉内血栓直接征象，29例右心系统形态改变，29例肺动脉收缩压升高。周围血管超声检出合并下肢静脉血栓20例。结论 综合运用超声在肺动脉栓塞诊断中的各种检查方法，以提高其敏感性和特异性，对肺动脉栓塞的诊断具有重要的意义。     

Impending paradoxical embolus: Clinical imaging and successful surgical treatment

In a patient with pulmonary emboli, transesophageal echocardiography showed a thrombus straddling the foramen ovale (impending paradoxical embolism). Proximal pulmonary emboli were visualized by spiral computed tomography and subsequent surgical treatment, consisting of removal of intracardiac clot, closure of the open foramen ovale and pulmonary embolectomy, was successful.     

经胸超声心动图诊断先天性肺动脉异常起源

目的分析先天性肺动脉异常起源的超声心动图特征及诊断价值。 方法收集北京军区总医院2008年1月至2014年12月经CT或手术证实的先天性肺动脉异常起源患儿32例为研究对象。回顾性分析患儿超声心动图特征。 结果单侧肺动脉缺如7例（左6/右1）、右肺动脉起源于主动脉3例、肺动脉吊带22例。超声明确诊断28例,提示但不确定1例,肺动脉吊带漏诊2例,左肺动脉缺如误诊1例;诊断符合率90.6%（29/32）。超声心动图共同特征为肺动脉主干及一侧分支正常显示,另一分支不能正常显示。特异超声心动图特征：单侧肺动脉缺如,于多切面观察均不能显示另一侧肺动脉分支;单侧肺动脉起源异常,于升主动脉可显示异常血管分支且合并重度肺动脉高压;肺动脉吊带,于右肺动脉远端可显示异常起源的左肺动脉。 结论先天性肺动脉异常起源具有特殊的超声心动图特征,经胸超声心动图检查能够早期、准确的做出诊断,多切面观察异常肺动脉分支的位置是鉴别诊断的关键环节。     

螺旋CT增强扫描在诊断和治疗肺动脉栓塞中的应用

目的 评价螺旋CT在诊断和治疗肺动脉栓塞中的作用。方法 对16例行螺旋CT增强扫描检查的肺动咏栓塞病人进行回顾性分析．观察血栓累及部位、表现形式及其它改变。结果 16例患者累及72处肺动咏分支，均累及单侧或双侧部分下叶肺动脉或段动脉．栓子表现为肺动脉内条状、不规则斑块状充盈缺损，位于血管腔中心或附着于血管壁上，11例有明显肺动咏高压，中心肺动脉扩张呈“残根征”，3例伴有肺梗死，其中11例经溶栓治疗后，7例栓子基本消失，3例明显缩小，1例不缩小。结论 螺旋CT增强扫描作为一种无创、安全、快速的检查方法，是诊断肺动脉栓塞可靠而直观的检查方法，并可较准确地判断溶栓疗效