Mortality in Anesthesia: A Systematic Review

This systematic review of the Brazilian and worldwide literature aims to evaluate the incidence and causes of perioperative and anesthesia-related mortality. Studies were identified by searching the Medline and Scielo databases, followed by a manual search for relevant articles. Our review includes studies published between 1954 and 2007. Each publication was reviewed to identify author(s), study period, data source, perioperative mortality rates, and anesthesia-related mortality rates. Thirty-three trials were assessed. Brazilian and worldwide studies demonstrated a similar decline in anesthesia-related mortality rates, which amounted to fewer than 1 death per 10,000 anesthetics in the past two decades. Perioperative mortality rates also decreased during this period, with fewer than 20 deaths per 10,000 anesthetics in developed countries. Brazilian studies showed higher perioperative mortality rates, from 19 to 51 deaths per 10,000 anesthetics. The majority of perioperative deaths occurred in neonates, children under one year, elderly patients, males, patients of ASA III physical status or poorer, emergency surgeries, during general anesthesia, and cardiac surgery followed by thoracic, vascular, gastroenterologic, pediatric and orthopedic surgeries. The main causes of anesthesia-related mortality were problems with airway management and cardiocirculatory events related to anesthesia and drug administration. Our systematic review of the literature shows that perioperative mortality rates are higher in Brazil than in developed countries, while anesthesia-related mortality rates are similar in Brazil and in developed countries. Most cases of anesthesia-related mortality are associated with cardiocirculatory and airway events. These data may be useful in developing strategies to prevent anesthesia-related deaths.     

The Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Ulinastatin in Trauma Patients with Hemorrhagic Shock

We investigated the use of ulinastatin in association with the suppression of polymorphonuclear leukocyte elastase (PMNE), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), and its effects on the prognosis of patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock. Nineteen patients who visited the emergency department for traumatic hemorrhagic shock were enrolled. Eleven patients were randomly selected to receive a total of 300,000 IU of ulinastatin. Measurements of serum PMNE, TNF-α and IL-6 were taken before ulinastatin treatment at 24 hr, two days, three days, and seven days after admission. We compared the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome scores, Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome scores and Acute Physiology, age, Chronic Health Evaluation III scores of the control and ulinastatin groups. There were no significant differences in baseline values, laboratory data, treatment or mortality between the two groups. The serum PMNE levels in the ulinastatin group were lower than in the control group on the second hospitalized day. Serum TNF-α and IL-6 levels in the ulinastatin group decreased 24 hr after admission but had no significance. It is suggested that ulinastatin treatment could decrease the serum PMNE levels in trauma patients with hemorrhagic shock at 48 hr after treatment.     

创伤失血性休克的治疗进展

目的：探讨创伤失血性休克的治疗现状,从而有效地指导临床工作.方法：应用PubMed、SpringerLink、中国知网医学全文期刊等数据库,查阅近年来相关文献,总结创伤失血性休克的治疗方法及其临床疗效.结果：现阶段,创伤失血性休克的治疗以限制性液体复苏、改善微循环为主,抗炎性介质、抗氧自由基、抗内毒素及中医中药等治疗显示出较好的临床前景,但仍处于辅助地位.结论：把液体复苏、免疫、炎症反应调控和抗氧化等临床治疗手段与细胞内氧复苏相结合是休克治疗领域发展的方向.     

失血性休克家兔血液粘度变化及β-七叶皂甙钠的保护作用

目的 :研究失血性休克时的血液粘度变化 ,寻求起保护作用的药物。方法 :采用家兔失血性休克模型 ,测定休克前后的血液粘度、血浆粘度、红细胞压积。结果 :单纯休克组休克后 1 0min、30min、60min家兔血液粘度逐渐升高 (P <0 .0 5 ) ,而 β -七叶皂甙钠组在休克后 1 0min、30min的血液粘度无明显升高 (P >0 .0 5 ) ,休克后 60min其血液粘度亦明显低于单纯休克组 (P <0 .0 5 )。结论 :失血性休克后家兔血液粘度明显升高 ,而 β -七叶皂甙钠能明显降低血液粘度 ,对综合治疗失血性休克有临床意义。     

Validation of the Shock Index,Modified Shock Index,and Age Shock Index for Predicting Mortality of Geriatric Trauma Patients in Emergency Departments

The shock index (SI), modified shock index (MSI), and age multiplied by SI (Age SI) are used to assess the severity and predict the mortality of trauma patients, but their validity for geriatric patients is controversial. The purpose of this investigation was to assess predictive value of the SI, MSI, and Age SI for geriatric trauma patients. We used the Emergency Department-based Injury In-depth Surveillance (EDIIS), which has data from 20 EDs across Korea. Patients older than 65 years who had traumatic injuries from January 2008 to December 2013 were enrolled. We compared in-hospital and ED mortality of groups categorized as stable and unstable according to indexes. We also assessed their predictive power of each index by calculating the area under the each receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve. A total of 45,880 cases were included. The percentage of cases classified as unstable was greater among non-survivors than survivors for the SI (36.6% vs. 1.8%, P < 0.001), the MSI (38.6% vs. 2.2%, P < 0.001), and the Age SI (69.4% vs. 21.3%, P < 0.001). Non-survivors had higher median values than survivors on the SI (0.84 vs. 0.57, P < 0.001), MSI (0.79 vs. 1.14, P < 0.001), and Age SI (64.0 vs. 41.5, P < 0.001). The predictive power of the Age SI for in-hospital mortality was higher than SI (AUROC: 0.740 vs. 0.674, P < 0.001) or MSI (0.682, P < 0.001) in geriatric trauma patients.     

Analysis of Characteristics and Mortality in Cardiac Arrest Patients by Hospital Level: a Nationwide Population-based Study

BackgroundSurvival and post-cardiac arrest care vary considerably by hospital, region, and country. In the current study, we aimed to analyze mortality in patients who underwent cardiac arrest by hospital level, and to reveal differences in patient characteristics and hospital factors, including post-cardiac arrest care, hospital costs, and adherence to changes in resuscitation guidelines.MethodsWe enrolled adult patients (≥ 20 years) who suffered non-traumatic cardiac arrest from 2006 to 2015. Patient demographics, insurance type, admission route, comorbidities, treatments, and hospital costs were extracted from the National Health Insurance Service database. We categorized patients into tertiary hospital, general hospital, and hospital groups according to the level of the hospital where they were treated. We analyzed the patients'' characteristics, hospital factors, and mortalities among the three groups. We also analyzed post-cardiac arrest care before and after the 2010 guideline changes. The primary end-point was 30 days and 1 year mortality rates.ResultsThe tertiary hospital, general hospital, and hospital groups represented 32.6%, 49.6%, and 17.8% of 337,042 patients, respectively. The tertiary and general hospital groups were younger, had a lower proportion of medical aid coverage, and fewer comorbidities, compared to the hospital group. Post-cardiac arrest care, such as percutaneous coronary intervention, targeted temperature management, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, were provided more frequently in the tertiary and general hospital groups. After adjusting for age, sex, insurance type, urbanization level, admission route, comorbidities, defibrillation, resuscitation medications, angiography, and guideline changes, the tertiary and general hospital groups showed lower 1-year mortality (tertiary hospital vs. general hospital vs. hospital, adjusted odds ratios, 0.538 vs. 0.604 vs. 1; P < 0.001). After 2010 guideline changes, a marked decline in atropine use and an increase in post-cardiac arrest care were observed in the tertiary and general hospital groups.ConclusionThe tertiary and general hospital groups showed lower 30 days and 1 year mortality rates than the hospital group, after adjusting for patient characteristics and hospital factors. Higher-level hospitals provided more post-cardiac arrest care, which led to high hospital costs, and showed good adherence to the guideline change after 2010.     

Shock Duration after Resuscitation Is Associated with Occurrence of Post-Cardiac Arrest Acute Kidney Injury

This retrospective observational study investigated the clinical course and predisposing factors of acute kidney injury (AKI) developed after cardiac arrest and resuscitation. Eighty-two patients aged over 18 yr who survived more than 24 hr after cardiac arrest were divided into AKI and non-AKI groups according to the diagnostic criteria of the Kidney Disease/Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Clinical Practice Guidelines for AKI. Among 82 patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest, AKI was developed in 66 (80.5%) patients (AKI group) leaving 16 (19.5%) patients in the non-AKI group. Nineteen (28.8%) patients of the AKI group had stage 3 AKI and 7 (10.6%) patients received renal replacement therapy during admission. The duration of shock developed within 24 hr after resuscitation was shorter in the non-AKI group than in the AKI group (OR 1.02, 95% CI 1.01-1.04, P < 0.05). On Multiple logistic regression analysis, the only predisposing factor of post-cardiac arrest AKI was the duration of shock. In conclusion, occurrence and severity of post-cardiac arrest AKI is associated with the duration of shock after resuscitation. Renal replacement therapy is required for patients with severe degree (stage 3) post-cardiac arrest AKI.     

淋巴液对失血性休克大鼠肠系膜微循环变化的影响

大鼠３０只，分为肠淋巴液治疗组及生理盐水对照组，复制重度失血性休克模型后，应用显微电视录像技术观察淋巴液对肠系膜微血管及微淋巴管的作用。结果：治疗组的存活时间显著长于对照组。输入淋巴液后，血压显著回升，肠系膜一、二级细动脉、细静脉口径和微淋巴管的静态口径均恢复正常，流态改善，微淋巴管收缩性恢复正常。提示肠淋巴液可以改善休克时的血液和淋巴循环障碍，对休克具有较好的治疗作用     

熊胆冻干粉针剂对失血性休克大鼠肠系膜微循环的影响

目的 :观察熊胆注射液对失血性休克大鼠平均动脉血压 (MABp)和存活时间的影响及其对失血性休克大鼠肠系膜微循环的作用。方法 :将Wistar系失血休克大鼠随机分 2组 :实验组 (BBI组 )静脉滴注 18mg/kg熊胆注射液 36ml/kg ;对照组 (NS组 )给予等容量的生理盐水。分别记录放血前、放血 6 0min、给药抢救 30min、 6 0min时MABp和各微循环指标的动态变化以及存活时间。结果 :(1)休克时各组MABp显著降低 ,BBI组给药后血压回升作用显著 ,与NS组比较给药抢救 30min、 6 0min时分别为P <0 .0 5、P <0 .0 1;存活时间BBI组明显延长 ,与NS组比较P <0 .0 1)。 (2 )在休克时二组肠系膜微血管血液速度均显著变慢 ,从放血前的线流变为粒流、泥流 ,红细胞聚集甚至停流。微血管口径均显著变细 ;微血管活动数均显著减少 ,而给药后微血管血流速度加快 ,微血管流态改善 ,变为粒线流及线粒流 ;微血管口径舒张 ;微血管活动数增加 ,BBI组与NS组比较均有显著性差异 (P <0 .0 5 )。结论 :18mg/kg熊胆注射液对失血性休克大鼠有明显的回升血压作用并延长存活时间 ;有舒张肠系膜微血管 ,改善微循环 ,减轻组织细胞缺血缺氧状态的作用。     

不同粘度血浆扩容剂的制备及其在失血性休克中的应用

目的:制备不同粘度的血浆扩容剂,初步研究其在失血性休克治疗中的作用。方法:采用海藻酸钠和右旋糖酐70制备高粘度血浆扩容剂(HVPE),采用右旋糖酐70制备低粘度血浆扩容剂(LVPE);采用间断放血方法制备失血性休克大鼠模型。用两种血浆扩容剂对休克大鼠进行复苏,同时监测平均动脉压、动物存活情况,红细胞压积、血红蛋白含量、血气、全血粘度、血浆乳酸浓度、胶体渗透压等指标。结果:HVPE和LVPE的胶体渗透压分别为42.5mmHg和60.1mmHg。二者分别表现出剪切稀化和剪切稠化等非牛顿流体特性。复苏后90min,HVPE组和LVPE组大鼠存活率分别为57%和100%。HVPE组存活和死亡动物血浆粘度平均值分别为2.37和3.54mPa.S。在纠正酸中毒和改善碱剩余方面,HVPE不如LVPE。其它各项指标两组无显著性差异。结论:失血性休克治疗中,血浆粘度应该控制在合适范围内,过高的血浆粘度可能引起死亡。     

失血性休克条件下心肌细胞动作电位和心肌力学的改变的研究

家兔失血性休克低血压5．3KPa观察3h，测定平均动脉压（MBP）、左心室收缩压（LVSP）、左心室最大收缩速度（dp／dtmax）以及心肌细胞电生理和组织内外钾钠。结果说明：（1）失血性休克后LVSP下降，且和MBP平行，（2）dp／dtmax在失血性休克后即刻急剧下降，15min后上升48％，以后逐渐下降，3h降至对照值的20％；（3）休克时细胞外钾钠显著升高；（4）心肌细胞静息电位（RP）、动作电位振幅（APH）下降；动作电位复极时间（APD），动作电位复极50％时间（APD50），复极90％时间（APD90）显著延长。提示；心肌细胞快钠通道关闭、慢钠和慢钙通道开放，钠、钙内流，钾外流。     

山莨菪碱对急性失血性休克家兔白细胞变形能力的影响

观察了急性失血性休克家兔白细胞变形能力的变化及山莨菪碱对其的影响。结果显示，休克时白细胞滤过指数明显高于休克前（Ｐ＜０．００１），且随休克时间的延长，滤过指数逐渐增高。应用山莨菪碱治疗后，白细胞滤过指数明显低于对照组和休克时，差异有显著性意义（ｐ＜０．００１），与休克前相比无明显差异（Ｐ＞０．０５）。本文结果提示，山莨菪碱具有明显改善白细胞变形能力的作用。     

血液代用品在失血性休克治疗中的应用研究进展

失血性休克是机体因各种原因所致的循环血量减少而导致的并发症。对失血性休克的治疗通常是向机体输注血液或可以代替血液功能的溶液。但由于血液贮存期短、供-受血者之间需要配型、血液传播血源性疾病等原因,限制了配型输血技术在紧急状况如灾难、战争的广泛应用,由此促进了血液代用品的研究开发。鉴于目前国内有关血液代用品的应用研究很少,尤其是将其应用在失血性休克治疗上的研究不多,作者就不同血液代用品及其在治疗失血性休克上的应用进行了综述。     

失血性休克大鼠肠淋巴管压力的变化

目的 :探讨肠淋巴循环在失血性休克发生、发展和转归中的作用。方法 :应用肠淋巴管插管术 ,观察大鼠休克及补液过程中肠淋巴管压力的变化。结果 :休克初期 ,组间及组内的肠淋巴管压力均无显著性变化 (P >0 .0 5) ,休克期肠淋巴管压力比休克前及对照组显著降低 (P<0 .0 5～ 0 .0 1) ,回输血液及生理盐水 ,肠淋巴管压力迅速恢复且急骤升高 ,自补液 10min起 ,肠淋巴管压力明显高于实验前和对照组 (P <0 .0 5～ 0 .0 1)。血压虽有回升趋势但未完全恢复到休克前水平。停止输液后 ,肠淋巴管压力虽有所降低但仍高于实验前 (P <0 .0 5～ 0 .0 1) ,实验组输液后期淋巴管压力和血压之间呈直线相关 (r =0 .978,P <0 .0 1,y =0 .2 0 6x)。 结论 :失血性休克及补血补液时肠淋巴管压力的变化对休克的发展和康复具有重要的意义     

维拉帕米对失血性休克犬心脏的保护作用及机制

杂种犬１１只，由股动脉放血使平均动脉压（ＭＡＰ）维持在６．０ｋＰａ９０ｍｉｎ后回输全部血液，继续观察１５０ｍｉｎ。在休克３０ｍｉｎ后，对照组和维拉帕米处理组（Ｖｅｒ组）分别静脉滴注生理盐水和Ｖｅｒ溶液［（１０μｇ／ｋｇ·ｍｉｎ）１５ｍｉｎ］，液体总量为３ｍｌ／ｋｇ。对照组犬在失血后心率（ＨＲ）加快，左室ｄｐ／ｄｔｍａｘ显著降低，回输血液后ＭＡＰ虽有回升，但仍低于基础值，左室ｄｐ／ｄｔｍａｘ无明显改善；Ｖｅｒ使休克犬ＨＲ减慢，血液回输后ＭＡＰ缓慢恢复至基础值，左室ｄｐ／ｄｔｍａｘ显著高于对照组；电镜观察可见对照组心肌肌原纤维和线粒体等有明显的损伤，而Ｖｅｒ组心肌超微结构基本正常。结果还显示：Ｖｅｒ组犬心肌中丙二醛含量、黄嘌呤氧化酶活性低于对照组，而超氧化物歧化酶活性高于对照组。结果表明：Ｖｅｒ对失血性休克犬的心脏具有保护作用，其机制可能与其阻滞膜Ｃａ２＋内流、抑制脂质过氧化有关。     

Alpha tryptase allele of Tryptase 1 (TPSAB1) gene associated with Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) and Dengue Shock Syndrome (DSS) in Vietnam and Philippines

We previously reported, significantly higher levels of Chymase and Tryptase in early stage plasma of DSS patients prior to the occurrence of shock suggesting a possible role of mast cells in dengue pathogenesis. To further investigate, we analyzed CMA1 promoter SNP (rs1800875) and TPSAB1 gene alleles, which encode the Human Chymase and α- and β- tryptase 1 enzymes respectively, for susceptibility to Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) and Dengue Shock Syndrome (DSS) in patients from hospitals in Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City and Vinh Long) and the Philippines. While the CMA1 promoter SNP (rs1800875) was not associated with DHF/DSS, the homozygous form of α-tryptase allele was associated with DSS patients in Vinh Long and the Philippines (OR = 3.52, p < 0.0001; OR = 3.37, p < 0.0001, respectively) and with DHF in Ho Chi Minh City (OR = 2.54, p = 0.0084). Also, a statistically significant association was observed when DHF and DSS were combined in Vinh Long (OR = 1.5, p = 0.034) and the Philippines (OR = 2.36, p = 0.0004); in Ho Chi Minh City when DHF and DSS were combine an association was observed, but it was not statistically significant (OR = 1.5, p = 0.0505). Therefore, the α-tryptase might have a possible effect on the susceptibility to severe form of Dengue infection.     

夏至草生物碱对失血性休克大鼠淋巴微循环的影响

目的 探讨夏至草生物碱（AHL）对失血性休克大鼠淋巴微循环的影响。方法Wistar大鼠16只。随机分成夏至草生物碱组（AHL组）和生理盐水组（NS组，n=8），经颈总动脉放血复制大鼠失血性休克模型．观察AHL对肠系膜淋巴微循环的影响。结果 失血性休克时，肠系膜淋巴微循环出现明显障碍。AHL可明显使肠系膜淋巴管口径扩张，收缩幅度增大，收缩频率加快，收缩性指数升高，其作用显著优于NS组（P〈0．05）。结论 AHL能明显改善失血性休克大鼠的淋巴微循环障碍。     

川芎嗪对失血性休克家兔肠系膜毛细血管血流动力学的影响

家兔１６只，随机分为生理盐水对照组和川芎嗪治疗组，麻醉后造成失血性休克，用显微电视录像静像步进技术测定川芎嗪对小肠系膜毛细血管内径、血流速度及血流量的作用。结果提示，川芎嗪比对照组可加快失血性休克家兔小肠系膜毛细血管血流速度、改善肠系膜微循环血流灌注，但对毛细血管口径无明显作用。     

出血性休克时小肠固有层内血管、间质和淋巴管间的液体流动

以大鼠为对象，由颈动脉放血，血压维持在５．３ｋＰａ，处于休克状态。由静脉快速注射０．５％荧光素钠０．２５ｍｌ。结果：出血性休克组荧光素钠通过微血管壁向固有层间质弥散的时间为３１±８ｓ，明显小于正常对照组的９７±３３ｓ。显示休克时小肠绒毛微血管通透性增加。小肠绒毛固有层内荧光素钠集中后进入初始淋巴管，测量淋巴管的面积、灰度，出血性休克组与正常对照组无明显差别，但集中和排除时间都明显快于正常对照组。这一结果说明休克时淋巴形成和排除过程明显快于正常对照组。荧光素钠经小肠绒毛淋巴管排除后，残留在绒毛固有层间质的数量，休克组远少于正常组。     

两种液体复苏对失血性休克大鼠血气的影响

目的:观察复方氯化钠溶液(RS)和6%中分子羟乙基淀粉溶液(HES)对失血性休克大鼠血气的影响。方法:40只健康雄性SD大鼠随机分为RS组(n=20)和HES组(n=20),建立失血性休克模型,分别在放血前、休克期和复苏期经股动脉回抽0.2ml血液用于血气分析。结果:组内比较,PaO2、pH、BE值放血前显著高于休克期和复苏期;PaO2休克期显著高于复苏期;PCO2、BE休克期低于复苏期;休克期pH值RS组低于复苏期,HES组高于复苏期。组间比较,放血前和休克期pH、PaCO2、PaO2、BE值没有明显差别。HES组复苏期pH、PaO2、BE值明显低于RS组,PaCO2值明显高于RS组。结论:本实验条件下,与6%中分子HES溶液比较,RS复苏能明显减轻酸中毒的严重程度。