自然杀伤细胞活化性受体的研究进展

自然杀伤细胞（NK）是机体固有免疫系统的重要效应细胞,其不仅能杀死病毒感染细胞和肿瘤细胞,还参与调节固有免疫应答和适应性免疫应答.NK细胞对靶细胞的杀伤效应取决于NK细胞抑制性受体和活化性受体与其配体相互作用的整合,而NK细胞不杀伤正常组织是因为抑制性受体对HLA-Ⅰ类分子的优势识别.NK细胞抑制性受体研究比较成熟,近几年NK细胞活化性受体研究进展很快.     

BTLA/HVEM抑制信号通路研究进展

BTLA是新近发现的Ig家族的抑制性受体,其唯一配体HVEM,来自TNF受体超家族,可与TNF家族的LIGHT结合提供正向刺激信号.而BTLA与HVEM的相互作用传递抑制信号下调淋巴细胞的免疫应答.这两个来自不同家族的受体间的负向调节作用,改变了对传统抑制性信号通路作用方式的看法.通过介绍目前对其生物学特性、信号传导机制及与相关疾病关系的研究,为进一步深入了解免疫应答的调控机制及寻找治疗自身免疫病、移植排斥、肿瘤等疾病的新方法提供参考.     

ITIM与抗原提呈细胞功能调节的研究进展

负反馈系统的调节使机体对外界环境的免疫应答过程能保持适当的强度,而免疫受体酪氨酸抑制基序(ITIM)在负向调节中发挥重要作用。它是构成免疫抑制性受体最基本的结构基础。专职抗原提呈细胞(APC)对非己抗原的递呈启动了特异性免疫应答,而表达于APC表面的抑制性受体可抑制APC引起的T细胞活化。通过调节抑制性受体的表达,为自身免疫病和肿瘤或者病毒感染的临床治疗提供了另一个方向。     

巨噬细胞抑制性受体及其免疫调节作用

巨噬细胞在清除衰老细胞和机体受伤或感染后的组织重塑中起着广泛的维持自身稳定的作用,其表达一系列的细胞膜受体,并且通过这些受体调节巨噬细胞与宿主、改变的自身成份和微生物的相互作用。巨噬细胞受体进行识别后发生膜表面的改变,引起内吞、信号转导及与基因表达,并且诱导获得性免疫应答,参与并调节机体防御与内环境稳定。巨噬细胞可能是依靠其表面的活化和抑制性受体的协同作用来发挥其免疫学功能的。虽然巨噬细胞活化性受体在免疫效应中的作用已经被人们充分认识,但是人们对巨噬细胞抑制性受体及其功能至今知之甚少。本文就巨噬细胞表面的抑制性受体及其免疫调节作用作一简要综述。     

CD28家族分子在疾病诊疗中的研究进展

机体免疫应答过程是由多种免疫细胞和免疫分子共同参与完成的,而免疫应答的核心是T淋巴细胞的活化。近年来的研究表明,T淋巴细胞活化、增殖及分化为效应细胞需要双重刺激信号：第一信号由T细胞受体（TCR）转导并由黏附分子增强;第二信号即协同刺激信号,由抗原提呈细胞（APCs）表面的协同刺激分子和T细胞的相应受体作用产生[1]。CD28/B7提供调节细胞迁移和Th1/Th2分化、     

环核苷酸与免疫

免疫应答的根本特点在于淋巴细胞膜上的抗原受体和同它有互补结构的相应抗原结合,引起该淋巴细胞的活化。淋巴细胞受体的化学结构虽有差异,但在这一点上可以认为在B、T 两种淋巴细胞并无根本的不同。因此,在机体免疫应答中,最重要的问题之一,就是淋巴细胞膜上接受到的信号经过何种机制传递到     

MEKK3信号通路在炎症和免疫应答中的研究

有丝分裂原活化蛋白激酶激酶激酶3(MEKK3)是MAP3K超家族MEKK/STE11亚群中的一种丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶。在一定条件下MEKK3能够活化多种下游MAPK,包括细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)~(1/2)、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)、p38以及ERK5。MEKK3组成性地表达于固有免疫细胞和适应性免疫细胞,在免疫应答过程中以及免疫细胞发育、分化、活化和存活过程中起着重要的调节作用。MEKK3不仅参与调节促炎症细胞因子和Toll样受体(TLR)诱导的IKK/NF-κB活化以及多种下游MAPK活化,还参与调节T细胞稳态、活化和分化过程。本文综述了MEKK3蛋白结构、磷酸化与活化机制,及其在炎症和免疫应答中参与调节的信号通路,特别是对促炎因子和TLR引起的固有免疫应答和T细胞表面受体(TCR)介导的适应性免疫应答中信号通路的调节作用。     

B细胞表面的抑制性受体及其作用机理

现已发现B细胞表面存在3种抑制性受体，介导对B细胞功能的负反馈性调节。它们是FerRⅡB（CD32）、CD22和P^IR-B,均属于免疫球蛋白超家族成员，羊链结构。它们的胞内区都含有与抑制性功能相关的ITIM结构域，以此活化胞内磷酸酶，进而抑制TAM结构域相关的信号活化途径，以保持B细胞介导的免疫应答的平衡。如果这些受体或其信号分子缺陷则导致自身免疫反应等。     

模式识别受体在抗真菌免疫中的作用

真菌感染机体后,通过模式识别作用及细胞内信号传导,启动固有免疫和适应性免疫应答.模式识别作用足抗真菌免疫的始动环节,Toll样受体(TLRs)和树突状细胞相关性C型凝集素-1(Dectin-1)是参与抗真菌免疫的主要模式识别受体(RPP).两者活化后启动机体免疫应答,产生各种细胞因子和趋化因子,并直接诱导巨噬细胞、自然杀伤细胞吞噬和杀灭病原体.TLRs和Dectin-1的信号传导、抗真菌感染的免疫机制以及两者之间的相互作用等已成为目前研究的热点.     

淋巴细胞组胺受体与免疫调节

自一九七二年Melmon发现白细胞表面具有组胺受体,人们就开始重视该受体与机体免疫的关系。十余年的研究证明,组胺受体在T细胞各亚群的不同分布,表现出免疫负反馈调节效应,淋巴细胞组胺受体的变化调节机体的组咆免疫和体液免疫反应;在一些免疫性疾病中存在淋巴细胞组胺受体的异常。为了深入认识淋巴细胞组胺受体在免疫调节中的作用,寻求可靠易行的检测方法,理解在免疫性疾病中淋巴细胞组胺受体变化情况及其诊断意义,本文拟就淋巴细胞组胺受体的功能、检测方法及其在免疫性疾病中的表现加以综述。一淋巴细胞组胺受体的功能 (一) 诱导抑制性细胞活性免疫反应如同其他复杂的生物过程由一系列正的和负的调节因素所控制。大部分的     

Activating and inhibitory signaling in mast cells: new opportunities for therapeutic intervention?

Immune responses are tightly controlled by the activities of both activating and inhibitory signals. At the cellular level, these signals are generated through engagement of membrane-associated receptors and coreceptors. The high-affinity IgE receptor FcepsilonRI is expressed on mast cells and basophils and, on cross-linking by multivalent antigen (allergen), stimulates the release of inflammatory mediators that induce acute allergic responses. Activation signals mediated by a variety of immune receptors (eg, B-cell receptor, T-cell receptor, and FcepsilonRI) are subject to negative regulation by a growing family of structurally and functionally related inhibitory receptors. Recent studies indicate that mast cells express multiple inhibitory receptors that may regulate FcepsilonRI-induced mast cell activation through similar mechanisms. The ability of inhibitory receptors to attenuate IgE-mediated allergic responses implicates them as potential targets for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of atopic disease. Indeed, coaggregation of activating and inhibitory receptors has been suggested as one possible mechanism to explain the beneficial effects of specific immunotherapy in the treatment of allergy. In this review we summarize the current knowledge of inhibitory receptors expressed in mast cells and the mechanisms through which they regulate mast cell function.     

Immune checkpoints in central nervous system autoimmunity

A number of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, are mediated by self-reactive T cells that have escaped the deletional mechanisms of central tolerance. Usually, these T cells are kept at bay through peripheral tolerance mechanisms, including regulation through coinhibitory receptors and suppression by regulatory T cells. However, if these mechanisms fail, self-reactive T cells are activated and autoimmune responses ensue. This review outlines how the coinhibitory receptors CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4), PD-1 (programed death-1), Tim-3 (T-cell immunoglobulin- and mucin domain-containing molecule 3), and TIGIT (T-cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domains) act at different checkpoints to inhibit autoreactive T cells and suppress the development of central nervous system autoimmunity. Loss of each of these receptors predisposes to autoimmunity, indicating a non-redundant role in maintaining peripheral tolerance. At the same time, their functional patterns seem to overlap to a large degree. Therefore, we propose that only the concerted action of a combination of inhibitory receptors is able to maintain peripheral tolerance and prevent autoimmunity.     

Signaling mechanisms regulating B-lymphocyte activation and tolerance

It is becoming more and more accepted that, in addition to producing autoantibodies, B lymphocytes have other important functions that influence the development of autoimmunity. For example, autoreactive B cells are able to produce inflammatory cytokines and activate pathogenic T cells. B lymphocytes can react to extracellular signals with a range of responses from anergy to autoreactivity. The final outcome is determined by the relative contribution of signaling events mediated by activating and inhibitory pathways. Besides the B cell antigen receptor (BCR), several costimulatory receptors expressed on B cells can also induce B cell proliferation and survival, or regulate antibody production. These include CD19, CD40, the B cell activating factor receptor, and Toll-like receptors. Hyperactivity of these receptors clearly contributes to breaking B-cell tolerance in several autoimmune diseases. Inhibitors of these activating signals (including protein tyrosine phosphatases, deubiquitinating enzymes and several adaptor proteins) are crucial to control B-cell activation and maintain B-cell tolerance. In this review, we summarize the inhibitory signaling mechanisms that counteract B-cell activation triggered by the BCR and the coreceptors.     

Inhibitory Fc Gamma Receptors: From Gene to Disease

Multiple lines of evidence have revealed a key role for inhibitory Fc gamma receptors class IIb (FcgammaRIIb) as negative modulators of innate and adaptive immune responses. Acquired and genetic factors regulate the expression of FcgammaRIIb receptors and modify their inhibitory potential. Recent advances have highlighted the importance of FcgammaRIIb receptors in influencing the development of cancer and autoimmunity. The association of increased FcgammaRIIb expression with tumor development is believed to operate at effector cell level resulting in inhibition of antitumor cytotoxicity. In autoimmune diseases, FcgammaRIIb receptors play a major role in controlling the amplitude of antibody- and immune complex-mediated reactions. Generally, FcgammaRIIb deficiency is associated with increased susceptibility and severity to organ-specific and systemic autoimmunity. This article discusses the proposed mechanisms for FcgammaRIIb deregulation associated with malignant and autoimmune pathology in animal models and human diseases.     

The mast cell IgG receptors and their roles in tissue inflammation

Summary:  Mast cells are effector cells of the innate immune system, but because they express Fc receptors (FcRs), they can be engaged in adaptive immunity by antibodies. Mast cell FcRs include immunoglobulin E (IgE) and IgG receptors and, among these, activating and inhibitory receptors. The engagement of mast cell IgG receptors by immune complexes may or may not trigger cell activation, depending on the type of mast cell. The coengagement of IgG and IgE receptors results in inhibition of mast cell activation. The Src homology-2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase-1 is a major effector of negative regulation. Biological responses of mast cells depend on the balance between positive and negative signals that are generated in FcR complexes. The contribution of human mast cell IgG receptors in allergies remains to be clarified. Increasing evidence indicates that mast cells play critical roles in IgG-dependent tissue-specific autoimmune diseases. Convincing evidence was obtained in murine models of multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, bullous pemphigoid, and glomerulonephritis. In these models, the intensity of lesions depended on the relative engagement of activating and inhibitory IgG receptors. In vitro models of mature tissue-specific murine mast cells are needed to investigate the roles of mast cells in these diseases. One such model unraveled unique differentiation/maturation-dependent biological responses of serosal-type mast cells.     

Negative regulation of TLR signaling in myeloid cells—implications for autoimmune diseases

Toll-like receptors (TLR) are transmembrane pattern recognition receptors that recognize microbial ligands and signal for production of inflammatory cytokines and type I interferon in macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). Whereas TLR-induced inflammatory mediators are required for pathogen clearance, many are toxic to the host and can cause pathological inflammation when over-produced. This is demonstrated by the role of TLR-induced cytokines in autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Because of the potent effects of TLR-induced cytokines, we have diverse mechanisms to dampen TLR signaling. Here, we highlight three pathways that participate in inhibition of TLR responses in macrophages and DC, and their implications in autoimmunity; A20, encoded by the TNFAIP3 gene, Lyp encoded by the PTPN22 gene, and the BCAP/PI3K pathway. We present new findings that Lyp promotes TLR responses in primary human monocytes and that the autoimmunity risk Lyp620W variant is more effective at promoting TLR-induced interleukin-6 than the non-risk Lyp620R protein. This suggests that Lyp serves to downregulate a TLR inhibitory pathway in monocytes, and we propose that Lyp inhibits the TREM2/DAP12 inhibitory pathway. Overall, these pathways demonstrate distinct mechanisms of negative regulation of TLR responses, and all impact autoimmune disease pathogenesis and treatment.     

Meta-analysis of IgE-binding allergen epitopes

Inhibitory receptors are thought to be important in balancing immune responses. The general assumption is that lack of inhibition predisposes for autoimmune diseases. As reviewed here, various experimental and clinical data support this assumption. However, in humans genetic evidence implicates only a limited number of inhibitory receptors. GWAS have established common variation in a few inhibitory receptor genes, such as FCγRIIB, PD-1 and CTLA-4 as risk factors. The question arises whether inhibitory receptor function is a major determinant of autoimmune disease. In this respect, the finding that genetic variation in CSK and PTPN22 is strongly associated with multiple autoimmune diseases is of interest. We propose a model in which the molecules encoded by these genes are downstream of inhibitory receptors. We conclude that common genetic variation of inhibitory receptors, with few exceptions, is not a determining factor for autoimmunity in humans. However, common downstream signaling pathways are.     

Inhibitory ITAMs as novel regulators of immunity

Summary:  Immune homeostasis is regulated by a finely tuned network of positive–negative regulatory mechanisms that guarantees proper surveillance avoiding hyperactivity that would lead to autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases. Immune responses involve the activation of immunoreceptors that contain tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs). One arm of control involves immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM)-bearing receptors, which upon co-aggregation initiate an inhibitory signal through recruitment of signal-aborting phosphatases. Recently, a new immunoregulatory function has been ascribed to ITAMs, which represent in fact dual function modules that, under specific configurations termed inhibitory ITAM (ITAMi), can propagate inhibitory signals. One paradigm is the immunoglobulin A (IgA) Fc receptor (FcαRI), which, upon interaction with IgA monomers in the absence of antigen, initiates a powerful inhibitory signal involving Src homology 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 (SHP-1) recruitment that suppresses cell activation launched by a whole variety of heterologous receptors without co-aggregation. This explains the long known function of IgA as an anti-inflammatory isotype. The importance of this control mechanism in immune homeostasis is underlined by the high incidence of autoimmune and allergic diseases in IgA-deficient patients. ITAMi is now described for an increasing number of immunoreceptors with multiple roles in immunity. ITAMi signaling is also exploited by Escherichia coli to achieve immune evasion during sepsis. Here, we review our current understanding of ITAMi regulatory mechanisms in immune responses and discuss its role in immune homeostasis.     

Pathogen recognition and Toll-like receptor targeted therapeutics in innate immune cells

The innate immune system deploys a variety of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) which include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and C-type lectin receptors to detect the invasion of pathogens and initiate protective responses. The intercellular and intracellular orchestration of signals from different PRRs, their endogenous or microbial ligands and accessory molecules determine the stimulatory or inhibitory responses. Progressing over the last two decades, considerable research on the molecular mechanisms underlying host–pathogen interactions has led to a paradigm shift of our understanding of TLR signaling in the innate immune system. Given that a significant amount of evidence implicates TLRs in the pathogenesis of immune diseases and cancer, and their activation occurs early in the inflammatory cascade, they are attractive targets for novel therapeutic agents. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in TLR signaling cross talks and the mechanism of pathogen recognition with special emphasis on the role of TLRs in tumor immunity and TLR-targeted therapeutics.     

Sensing context: Inhibitory receptors on non-hematopoietic cells

Similar to immune cells, non-hematopoietic cells recognize microbial and endogenous threats. Their response to these stimuli is dependent on the environmental context. For example, intact intestinal epithelium expresses pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) but should tolerate commensal bacteria, while damaged epithelium should respond promptly to initiate an immune response. This indicates that non-hematopoietic cells possess mechanisms to sense environmental context and regulate their responses. Inhibitory receptors provide context sensing to immune cells. For instance, they raise the threshold for activation to prevent overzealous immune activation to harmless stimuli. Inhibitory receptors are typically studied on hematopoietic cells, but several of these receptors are expressed on non-hematopoietic cells. Here, we review evidence for the regulation of non-hematopoietic cells by inhibitory receptors, focusing on epithelial and endothelial cells. We explain that inhibitory receptors on these cells can sense a wide range of signals, including cell-cell adhesion, cell-matrix adhesion, and apoptotic cells. More importantly, they regulate various functions on these cells, including immune activation, proliferation, and migration. In conclusion, we propose that inhibitory receptors provide context to non-hematopoietic cells by fine tuning their response to endogenous or microbial stimuli. These findings prompt to investigate the functions of inhibitory receptors on non-hematopoietic cells more systematically.