Role for botulinum toxin in back pain treatment in adults with cerebral palsy: report of a case

OBJECTIVE: To report a case illustrating the usefulness of botulinum toxin A in the treatment of spinal dystonia responsible for low back pain and postural disorders. METHODS: Critical appraisal of a case report. CASE REPORT: A young woman with cerebral palsy had lumbar paraspinal muscle dystonia responsible for pain and hyperlordosis unresponsive to oral medications for muscle spasm. Botulinum toxin A (Botox(R), 200 U) was injected into the paraspinal muscles at six sites, to good effect. DISCUSSION: The few reported cases consistently show a favorable effect of local botulinum toxin A injections in patients with painful paraspinal muscle dystonia related to neurological disease or chronic low back pain. CONCLUSION: Botulinum toxin A may be a useful treatment for incapacitating painful dystonia of the paraspinal muscles. This treatment improves posture in the sitting position and facilitates the fitting of orthotic devices. Furthermore, botulinum toxin A treatment may help to determine whether an intrathecal baclofen test is in order.     

Role of exercise testing in the functional assessment of cerebral palsy children after botulinum A toxin injection.

The purpose of this clinical prospective study was to assess the effect of intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin A on energy cost of movement and walking endurance in 15 children with cerebral palsy, aged 4 to 13 years, by using incremental walking treadmill protocol to voluntary exhaustion. Oxygen-uptake response to exercise stress and endurance time were analyzed before and 2 and 6 months after botulinum toxin A injection. Endurance time was significantly improved 2 months after botulinum toxin A injection in 13 patients, and a residual improvement was still present 6 months after injection in some of them. The effect of botulinum toxin A on energy cost of movement was very variable. This study provides clinical evidence of the efficacy of botulinum toxin A in reducing the energy cost of movement and in improving the endurance of spastic muscles in children with cerebral palsy.     

New indications for botulinum toxin in rheumatology

Previously known only as a deadly bacterial poison responsible for severe paralysis, botulinum toxin is now a well-recognized therapeutic agent used to relieve involuntary movements, dystonia-related functional impairments, spasticity, and autonomic disorders such as hyperhidrosis. Musculoskeletal pain in patients with rheumatic disorders is among the emerging indications for botulinum toxin therapy. Preliminary data have been obtained in patients with cervical or thoracolumbar myofascial pain syndrome, chronic low back pain, piriformis muscle syndrome, tennis elbow, and stiff person syndrome. At present, the effects of botulinum toxin and its use for pain relief remain controversial. Carefully designed prospective trials are needed to investigate the efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin in pain disorders.     

Ultrasonographic evaluation of changes in the muscle architecture of the gastrocnemius with botulinum toxin treatment for lower extremity spasticity in children with cerebral palsy

Background

Botulinum toxin A treatment involves injecting botulinum toxin A to relax muscle spasticity. Using ultrasonography, this study examined changes in the muscle architecture before and after treatment to evaluate the influence of botulinum toxin A injection on muscles.

Botulinum toxin as an adjunct to serial casting treatment in children with cerebral palsy

BACKGROUND: Although botulinum toxin A is frequently used to augment serial casting in the treatment of soft-tissue contractures in children with cerebral palsy, its effectiveness for this purpose has not been evaluated. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether botulinum toxin A injection increases the efficacy of serial casting. METHODS: A prospective, randomized trial was undertaken to compare serial casting only with serial casting combined with botulinum toxin A (Botox) injection for the treatment of ankle equinus contractures in twenty-three children with cerebral palsy. Range-of-motion testing, spasticity assessment, and computerized gait analysis were performed as long as twelve months after treatment. RESULTS: There was no difference between the groups with regard to the duration of casting required to correct the equinus contracture. Both groups maintained a significant improvement in passive ankle dorsiflexion throughout the follow-up period, although the group managed with casting and Botox had a significant loss of dorsiflexion when the values at six, nine, and twelve months were compared with the value at three months. Peak dorsiflexion during the stance and swing phases was significantly improved in both groups at three months but only in the group managed with casting alone at twelve months. Plantar flexor spasticity was significantly decreased at three months in both groups, but it was significantly decreased at six, nine, and twelve months only in the group managed with casting alone. Spasticity was significantly greater in the group managed with casting and Botox than it was in the group managed with casting only at six, nine, and twelve months. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates the efficacy of serial casting in the treatment of equinus contractures in children with cerebral palsy who are able to walk. Contrary to our hypothesis, the addition of botulinum toxin A to a serial casting regimen led to earlier recurrence of spasticity, contracture, and equinus during gait. The results of the present study suggest that botulinum toxin combined with serial casting for the treatment of fixed contractures will lead to a recurrence of plantar flexor spasticity and equinus contracture by six months in this patient population. While previous research has indicated that the injection of botulinum toxin A is superior to casting for the treatment of dynamic equinus, the present study suggests that serial casting alone is preferable for the treatment of fixed equinus contractures in children with cerebral palsy.     

Repeated botulinum toxin A injections in the treatment of spastic equinus foot.

Equinus foot disorder is a common problem for patients with cerebral palsy who are able to ambulate. Botulinum toxin A is a recommended method of treatment for temporary reduction of muscle tone. The efficacy of repeated botulinum toxin A injections in the calf muscles was evaluated in a clinical trial involving 21 children with cerebral palsy and dynamic equinus foot deformity who were able to ambulate. The mean age of the children was 5.7 years. All patients received at least two injections, six patients received at least three injections, and three patients received four injections. The outcome was evaluated using observational and three-dimensional instrumented gait analysis. Significant improvements of the gait parameters were observed at 6 and 18 weeks after the first and second injections. Botulinum toxin A injections in gastrocnemius and soleus muscles may change the natural history of equinus foot deformity in patients with spastic diplegia. Orthopaedic surgery may be postponed or avoided.     

Botulinum A toxin for treatment of lower limb spasticity in cerebral palsyGait analysis in 49 patients

Background: Injection of botulinum type A toxin is a new treatment for spasticity. Patients and methods: We evaluated the effect of botulinum A toxin (BTX-A) in the lower limb muscles of patients having cerebral palsy. We tested 49 patients before and, on average, 4 (2-9) months after giving the toxin. The evaluation included 3-dimensional computerized gait analysis, changes in mobility level, using the Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire, and gastrocnemius muscle bulk, using ultrasonographic measurements. Results: The patients were divided into 3 groups, according to the site of BTX-A administration (hamstrings, gastrocnemius and multilevel). Those who were injected in the hamstrings showed a significant improvement in only the maximum knee extension angle during the gait cycle. Those with spastic equinus who were injected in the gastrocnemius muscle responded better than the other groups. The ankle angle on the initial contact, terminal stance and preswing, maximum dorsiflexion, ankle range of motion, per cent of single support and gait velocity improved significantly. Overall, the patients showed significant improvements in motor skill performance and functional health. Interpretation: Our findings indicate that botulinum type A toxin can be given as an adjuvant to conservative treatment of patients with cerebral palsy.     

Botulinum A toxin for treatment of lower limb spasticity in cerebral palsy: gait analysis in 49 patients

BACKGROUND: Injection of botulinum type A toxin is a new treatment for spasticity. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We evaluated the effect of botulinum A toxin (BTX-A) in the lower limb muscles of patients having cerebral palsy. We tested 49 patients before and, on average, 4 (2-9) months after giving the toxin. The evaluation included 3-dimensional computerized gait analysis, changes in mobility level, using the Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire, and gastrocnemius muscle bulk, using ultrasonographic measurements. RESULTS: The patients were divided into 3 groups, according to the site of BTX-A administration (hamstrings, gastrocnemius and multilevel). Those who were injected in the hamstrings showed a significant improvement in only the maximum knee extension angle during the gait cycle. Those with spastic equinus who were injected in the gastrocnemius muscle responded better than the other groups. The ankle angle on the initial contact, terminal stance and pre-swing, maximum dorsiflexion, ankle range of motion, per cent of single support and gait velocity improved significantly. Overall, the patients showed significant improvements in motor skill performance and functional health. INTERPRETATION: Our findings indicate that botulinum type A toxin can be given as an adjuvant to conservative treatment of patients with cerebral palsy.     

The effects of quantitative gait assessment and botulinum toxin a on musculoskeletal surgery in children with cerebral palsy

BACKGROUND: The limits of nonoperative treatment for children with cerebral palsy, including physical therapy and orthotics, commonly lead to orthopaedic surgical intervention. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the influence of gait analysis and botulinum toxin type-A injections on the timing, prevalence, and frequency of orthopaedic surgery. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of 424 children with cerebral palsy who had been born between 1976 and 1994. The children were divided into three groups: Group 1 comprised 122 patients who were managed throughout the entire study period according to best-practice guidelines in orthopaedics, Group 2 comprised 170 patients who were similarly managed but with input from gait analysis, and Group 3 comprised 132 patients who had gait analysis and also received botulinum toxin type-A injections. We analyzed the prevalence of orthopaedic surgical procedures at different ages (three to nine years) and the time to the first surgical procedure. RESULTS: The progression to orthopaedic surgery was significantly different among the three groups (p < 0.0001). The proportion of patients who had undergone at least one surgical procedure by the age of seven years was 52% (sixty-four of 122) for Group 1, 27% (forty-six of 170) for Group 2, and 10% (thirteen of 132) for Group 3. There was a delay in surgery in Group 2 as compared with Group 1 (p < 0.00001 at seven, eight, and nine years of age) and a significant decrease in the prevalence of orthopaedic surgical procedures for Group 3 as compared with Group 1 (p < 0.00001 at four to eight years of age) and Group 2 (p < 0.0025 at four to nine years of age). CONCLUSIONS: In the treatment of children who have cerebral palsy, the introduction of gait analysis increases the age of the first orthopaedic surgical procedure and botulinum toxin type-A treatment delays and reduces the frequency of surgical procedures.     

Lengths of hamstrings and psoas muscles during crouch gait: Effects of femoral anteversion

Recent studies of muscle lengths measured by means of gait analysis data and musculoskeletal models have suggested that in many cases of crouch gait in patients with cerebral palsy, the hamstrings are of normal length and the psoas muscles are short. In these studies, however, muscle lengths were calculated by applying kinematic data from a child's joint to a normal adult model. Children with cerebral palsy and other disorders generally do not have normal bone architecture but instead have muscle attachment points and muscle paths altered by osseous deformities. In this study, we explored the consequences of using normal adult musculoskeletal models to calculate hamstring and psoas lengths for children with cerebral palsy. Specifically, for a group of subjects with cerebral palsy who walk with a crouch gait, we investigated the changes in muscle lengths that arise when a patient-specific representation of clinically measured femoral anteversion was added to a model of normal musculoskeletal geometry. The calculation of psoas muscle length was found to be very sensitive to femoral anteversion, whereas the calculation of hamstrings length was found to be relatively insensitive to this osseous deformity.     

The use of botulinum toxin in the treatment of spastic hip joint instability in children with cerebral palsy]

Authors present the effect of intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin A (BTX-A) in the treatment of hip instability in children with spastic cerebral palsy. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The sixty-seven non walking children (110 hips) with quadriplegia and hip instability (MP > 33% or increase of MP > 20% in the second follow-up after 12 months) were evaluated. The mean age of patients in the beginning of study was 3 years and 8 months (SD = 2 years). The patients were randomly allocated to administrations of BTX-A - group A (52 hips) or to observation - group B (58 hips). The intramuscular injections of BTX-A were performed every 3 months, bilaterally to adductors, medial hamstrings and psoas muscles. The choice of muscles for BTX-A administration was determined by the results of clinical examination consisting in dynamic assessment of joint range of motion. The groups of muscles presenting the dynamic contraction (3 and more in Ashworth Scale) were injected. The a-p radiographs were used to assess the migration percentage (MP). The average length of follow-up was 21 months. RESULTS: The mean value of MP in the group A was 38% at the beginning of treatment and 28% at the end of follow-up (difference statistically significant; p < 0.00001). The mean value of MP in the group B was 36% at the primary examination and 38% at the final examination (difference statistically significant; p < 0.00001). The mean progression (-) for the group A = 10% (improvement) and for the group B +3% (deterioration) (difference statistically significant; p < 0.00001). CONCLUSIONS: Locate specific target intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin A (BTX-A) are a useful method of prevention of the neurogenic hip dislocation in children with spastic cerebral palsy.     

Effects of botulinum toxin type A and a programme of functional activity to improve manual ability in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy.

We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a clinical programme that combined botulinum toxin injections with a functional activity programme to improve manual ability in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. A total of 25 young people age range 2 to 19 years participated. They were given injections of botulinum toxin type A into spastic muscles in the upper extremities and participated in a functional activity training programme. Standardised clinical assessments were made before injections, one to two months after, and six months after, the final injections. To assess if the treatment had changed their ability to use the treated hand in activities of everyday life a questionnaire was given to the parents. The families thought that the ability had improved, and that the improvements took place both during the first three months after treatment and after more than six months after the final injections. The ability to extend wrist and fingers actively and the position of the thumb had improved significantly both in the short and long- term. This study supports the assumption that a programme combining botulinum toxin A injections with training in functional activity improves manual ability in young people with cerebral palsy.     

Effects of botulinum toxin type A and a programme of functional activity to improve manual ability in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy

We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a clinical programme that combined botulinum toxin injections with a functional activity programme to improve manual ability in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. A total of 25 young people age range 2 to 19 years participated. They were given injections of botulinum toxin type A into spastic muscles in the upper extremities and participated in a functional activity training programme. Standardised clinical assessments were made before injections, one to two months after, and six months after, the final injections. To assess if the treatment had changed their ability to use the treated hand in activities of everyday life a questionnaire was given to the parents. The families thought that the ability had improved, and that the improvements took place both during the first three months after treatment and after more than six months after the final injections. The ability to extend wrist and fingers actively and the position of the thumb had improved significantly both in the short and long term. This study supports the assumption that a programme combining botulinum toxin A injections with training in functional activity improves manual ability in young people with cerebral palsy.     

选择性腰骶脊神经后根+前根切断术治疗混合型脑瘫

目的:探讨选择性腰骶脊神经后根切断术(selective posterior rhizotomy,SPR)联合选择性脊神经前根切断术(selective anterior rhizotomy,SAR)治疗混合型脑瘫的疗效。方法:2004年1月~2010年1月,选择48例混合型脑瘫患者,其中男36例,女12例,年龄3～22岁,平均8.8岁,均以痉挛型为主,伴有下肢徐动,术前下肢肌张力均为3级(根据Ashworth 5级法),术前下肢功能情况:独立行走36例,简单介助行走8例,介助站立并有行走动作4例。采用SPR+SAR联合治疗,术中根据肢体痉挛程度切断部分脊神经后根,其中L5、S1后根38例,L4、L5、S1后根10例,后根切断比例为30%~50%;按徐动程度切断部分脊神经前根,其中L5前根28例,S1前根20例,切断比例为30%;术中尽可能保留椎板,以维持脊柱稳定性。结果:术后出现小腿或足底麻木感2例,下肢肌力下降3例,腰痛2例,腰部无力5例,小便控制差1例,经营养神经、康复锻炼、神经肌肉兴奋仪刺激等处理,6个月内症状基本消失。随访18个月。48例患者肌张力术后1周、6个月、18个月均较术前明显改善,痉挛缓解率100%。下肢徐动症状:术后1周时,1例症状加重,经联合应用镇静药物及巴氯芬3个月后恢复至术前,4例无变化,43例改善;术后6个月时,5例较术前无变化,43例改善,无加重病例;术后18个月时,44例明显改善,4例无明显变化,无加重病例。术后18个月随访时,术前介助行走的8例患者中,5例可独立行走,3例无变化;术前介助站立的4例患者中,1例可独立行走,2例可独自站立,1例无变化。结论:腰骶SPR+SAR治疗以痉挛型为主伴有下肢徐动的混合型脑瘫,能有效解除肢体痉挛,降低肌张力,而且能在一定程度上控制下肢徐动症状,是治疗此种混合型脑瘫比较合理的手术方法。     

Spastic equinus foot

Pes equinus is the most common deformity in cerebral palsy. A primarily dynamic pes equinus without shortening of the calf muscle in many cases turns into a structural pes equinus. This is due to insufficient linear growth of the calf muscle compared to bone growth. Structural pes equinus has to be distinguished from marked, compensatory and forefoot pes equinus. Conservative as well as operative treatment options are often applied in combination or sequentially. In dynamic pes equinus botulinum toxin A is the therapy of choice. Only slight structural pes equinus may improve under botulinum toxin A injection with and without additional casting. Usually, structural pes equinus requires operative treatment or lengthening of the gastrocnemius and/or soleus muscle (operation according to Baumann). Because of its side effect of inducing loss of power of the calf muscle, lengthening of the Achilles tendon should only be performed with caution. Especially in bilateral spastic cerebral palsy, the increased risk of causing talipes calcaneovalgus and crouch gait has to be considered.     

Spastischer Spitzfu?

Pes equinus is the most common deformity in cerebral palsy. A primarily dynamic pes equinus without shortening of the calf muscle in many cases turns into a structural pes equinus. This is due to insufficient linear growth of the calf muscle compared to bone growth. Structural pes equinus has to be distinguished from marked, compensatory and forefoot pes equinus. Conservative as well as operative treatment options are often applied in combination or sequentially. In dynamic pes equinus botulinum toxin A is the therapy of choice. Only slight structural pes equinus may improve under botulinum toxin A injection with and without additional casting. Usually, structural pes equinus requires operative treatment or lengthening of the gastrocnemius and/or soleus muscle (operation according to Baumann). Because of its side effect of inducing loss of power of the calf muscle, lengthening of the Achilles tendon should only be performed with caution. Especially in bilateral spastic cerebral palsy, the increased risk of causing talipes calcaneovalgus and crouch gait has to be considered.     

局部注射少量A型肉毒毒素治疗上半面部皱纹的临床研究

目的：观察局部注射少量A型肉毒毒素（BTXA）去除上半面部皱纹的临床疗效。方法：应用A型肉毒毒素的198例患者,其中眉间纹65例,鱼尾纹80例,额纹20例,鼻背部皱纹33例。所有患者行局部多点注射A型肉毒毒素,浓度为4U/0.1ml,并根据不同的患者调整剂量和浓度。记录患者疗效、维持时间与不良反应。结果：A型肉毒毒素治疗面部上三分之一皱纹有效率为100%,显效率94.4%。肌肉麻痹的效果通常持续3～6个月不等,不良反应主要为4例上睑下垂,3例局部水肿和4例青紫,各占2.0%、1.5%和2.0%。上述症状于3～10内自行完全消失。结论：A型肉毒毒素局部注射治疗面部上三分之一皱纹起效迅速、无创伤、简便易行。     

Spasticity and botulinum toxin in 2003. An update

After the spastic foot in cerebral palsy, there are now wider indications for botulinum toxin injections in spasticity. Post stroke upper limb spasticity has been usefully treated by botulinum toxin in several studies, including double blind placebo-controlled studies. Two serotypes and one serotype B are marketed, with various properties. Botulinum toxin has been studied in multiple etiologies of spasticity. In multiple sclerosis, few studies revealed an efficacy in angulations and comfort. In spinal cord injuries, gait and sphincter disorders can be improved. In post stroke spasticity, lower limb angulations are improved, but gait remained difficult to evaluate. In upper limb spasticity, angulation, function and quality of life were improved in double blind, placebo controlled studies. Comparisons of costs and efficacy are made between botulinum toxin and the other antispastic methods.     

Nonsurgical treatment of chronic anal fissure: nitroglycerin and dilatation versus nifedipine and botulinum toxin.

BACKGROUND: Surgical sphincterotomy for chronic anal fissure can cause fecal incontinence. This has led to the investigation of nonsurgical treatment options that avoid permanent damage to the internal anal sphincter. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, ongoing chart review with telephone follow-up of 88 patients treated for chronic anal fissure between November 1996 and December 2002. During the first half of the study period, patients were treated with topical nitroglycerin and pneumatic dilatation. With the availability of new therapies in June 1999, subsequent patients received topical nifedipine and botulinum toxin injections (30-100 units). Lateral anal sphincterotomy was reserved for patients who failed medical treatment. RESULTS: In 98% of patients the fissure healed with conservative nonsurgical treatment. The combination of nifedipine and botulinum toxin was superior to nitroglycerin and pneumatic dilatation with respect to both healing (94% v. 71%, p < 0.05) and recurrence rate (2% v. 27%, p < 0.01). There was no statistical difference between the number of dilatations and botulinum toxin injections needed to achieve healing. Three patients who received botulinum toxin reported mild transient flatus incontinence. At an average telephone follow-up of 27 months, 92% of patients reported having no pain or only mild occasional pain with bowel movements. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic anal fissures can be simply and effectively treated medically without the risk of incontinence associated with sphincterotomy. Topical nifedipine and botulinum toxin injections are an excellent combination, associated with a low recurrence rate and minimal side effects.     

The prevention of pain during botulinum toxin injections in children

According to the recommendations of the French health products safety agency (AFSSAPS) in 2009, botulinum toxin injections are recommended to reduce spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. Apprehension of the session can increase the pain. Therefore, programmes have been put in place which help to win over the child and gain their trust. Since 2008 a nurse consultation which informs the child through play has been set up in the centre for physical medicine and rehabilitation of the Association for the social and professional integration of disabled people.