1-磷酸鞘氨醇受体2介导PI3K/AKT/eNOS通路抑制甲型流感病毒诱导的病毒性肺炎

目的:探讨1-磷酸鞘氨醇受体2(S1PR2)对甲型流感病毒诱导的病毒性肺炎的作用及机制。方法:采用甲型流感病毒鼠肺适应株FM1滴鼻感染野生C57BL/6小鼠和S1pr2~(-/-)小鼠,建立甲型流感病毒性肺炎动物模型。病毒感染4和6 d时观察比较对照组(模型组的野生小鼠)、JTE-013(S1PR2高效拮抗剂)处理的小鼠及S1pr2~(-/-)小鼠肺组织的病理改变,检测支气管肺泡灌洗液(BALF)中的蛋白浓度、细胞总数及细胞因子[白细胞介素(IL)-1β、IL-6和肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)]的表达,Western blot法检测小鼠肺组织的AKT和e NOS的磷酸化水平。结果:与模型对照组的野生鼠比较,JTE处理组和S1pr2~(-/-)组甲型流感病毒性肺炎更加严重;BALF中的蛋白浓度,总细胞数及炎性细胞因子表达显著增加;且PI3K下游靶点AKT和e NOS磷酸化显著增高(P0.01)。结论:S1PR2通过介导PI3K/AKT/e NOS信号转导通路,调节NO生成,抑制血管通透性和炎性细胞因子释放,从而减轻甲型流感病毒诱导的病毒性肺炎。     

Anti-IFN-γ therapy alleviates acute lung injury induced by severe influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 infection in mice

Background/purposeSevere infection with influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 virus is characterized by acute lung injury. The limited efficacy of anti-viral drugs indicates an urgent need for additional therapies. We have previously reported that neutralization of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) could significantly rescue the thymic atrophy induced by severe influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 infection in BALB/c mice. A deeper investigation was conducted into the influence of neutralizing IFN-γ to the BALB/c mice weight, survival rate, and lung injury.MethodsThe BALB/c mice was infected with severe influenza A (H1N1)pdm09. Monoclonal antibodies against IFN-γ were injected into the abdominal cavities of the mice. After neutralization of IFN-γ occurred in mice infected by severe ? influenza A (H1N1)pdm09, observing the influence of neutralizing IFN-γ to the BALB/c mice weight, survival rate, lung injury.ResultOur results here showed that anti-IFN-γ therapy alleviated the acute lung injury in this mouse model. Neutralization of IFN-γ led to a significant reduction in the lung microvascular leak and the cellular infiltrate in the lung tissue, and also improved the outcome in mice mortality. Several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1α, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and the chemokines including G-CSF, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in serum samples were found to be significantly reduced after anti-IFN-γ treatment.ConclusionThese results suggested that IFN-γ plays an important role in acute lung injury induced by severe influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 infection, and monoclonal antibodies against IFN-γ could be useful as a potential therapeutic remedy for future influenza pandemics.     

IL-36 receptor deletion attenuates lung injury and decreases mortality in murine influenza pneumonia

Influenza virus causes a respiratory disease in humans that can progress to lung injury with fatal outcome. The interleukin (IL)-36 cytokines are newly described IL-1 family cytokines that promote inflammatory responses via binding to the IL-36 receptor (IL-36R). The mechanism of expression and the role of IL-36 cytokines are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of IL-36 cytokines in modulating the innate inflammatory response during influenza virus-induced pneumonia in mice. The intranasal administration of influenza virus upregulated IL-36α mRNA and protein production in the lungs. In vitro, influenza virus-mediated IL-36α but not IL-36γ is induced and secreted from alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) through both a caspase-1 and caspase-3/7 dependent pathway. IL-36α was detected in microparticles shed from AECs and promoted the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in respiratory cells. IL-36R-deficient mice were protected from influenza virus-induced lung injury and mortality. Decreased mortality was associated with significantly reduced early accumulation of neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages, activation of lymphocytes, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and permeability of the alveolar–epithelial barrier in despite impaired viral clearance. Taken together, these data indicate that IL-36 ligands exacerbate lung injury during influenza virus infection.     

Ability of Recombinant Human Catalase to Suppress Inflammation of the Murine Lung Induced by Influenza A

Influenza A virus pandemics and emerging antiviral resistance highlight the urgent need for novel generic pharmacological strategies that reduce both viral replication and inflammation of the lung. We have previously investigated the therapeutic efficacy of recombinant human catalase (rhCAT) against viral pneumonia in mice, but the protection mechanisms involved were not explored. In the present study, we have performed a more in-depth analysis covering survival, lung inflammation, immune cell responses, production of cytokines, and inflammation signaling pathways in mice. Male imprinting control region mice were infected intranasally with high pathogenicity (H1N1) influenza A virus followed by treatment with recombinant human catalase. The administration of rhCAT resulted in a significant reduction in inflammatory cell infiltration (e.g., macrophages and neutrophils), inflammatory cytokine levels (e.g., IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ), the level of the intercellular adhesion molecule 1 chemokine and the mRNA levels of toll-like receptors TLR-4, TLR-7, and NF-κB, as well as partially maintaining the activity of the antioxidant enzymes system. These findings indicated that rhCAT might play a key protective role in viral pneumonia of mice via suppression of inflammatory immune responses.     

犀角地黄汤合银翘散对流感病毒感染的小鼠肺组织及大鼠肺微血管内皮细胞ICAM-1和VCAM-1表达的影响

 目的：研究中医经典合方犀角地黄汤合银翘散(XDY)对流感病毒性肺炎小鼠肺组织及对流感病毒感染的大鼠肺微血管内皮细胞(RPMVECs)中细胞间黏附分子1（ICAM-1）和血管细胞黏附分子1（VCAM-1）表达的影响,探讨其治疗病毒性肺炎的机制。方法：54只雄性BALB/c小鼠随机分为正常组、模型组和XDY组,每组18只,后2组以流感病毒滴鼻感染,XDY组灌胃给予XDY;在感染后的2、4和6 d分别取材,免疫组化法观察肺组织中ICAM-1和VCAM-1表达。从雄性Wistar大鼠中分离并原代培养RPMVECs,设置正常组、病毒组、病毒+XDY含药血清组、肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）组和TNF-α+XDY含药血清组;刺激因素作用24 h后,real-time PCR检测ICAM-1和VCAM-1 mRNA水平,流式细胞术检测ICAM-1和VCAM-1蛋白表达。结果：与正常组比较,模型组肺组织中ICAM-1和VCAM-1表达持续增多(P<0.01),而XDY组的表达均低于模型组 (P<0.01);与正常组比较,流感病毒和TNF-α作用的RPMVECs中 ICAM-1和VCAM-1 mRNA及蛋白表达明显升高(P<0.01),XDY能下调ICAM-1和VCAM-1 mRNA及蛋白表达 (P<0.01)。结论：抑制流感病毒感染导致的RPMVECs黏附分子的表达从而抑制机体的炎症级联反应可能是XDY治疗流感病毒性肺炎的作用机制之一。     

Therapeutic Effect of Recombinant Human Catalase on H1N1 Influenza-induced Pneumonia in Mice

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are believed to play a key role in the induction of lung damage caused by pneumonia and therapeutic agents that could effectively scavenge ROS may prevent or reduce the deleterious effects of influenza-induced pneumonia. In this study, we first demonstrated that human catalase could attenuate acute oxidative injury in lung tissues following influenza-induced pneumonia. Mice were infected with influenza virus H1N1 (FM1 strain) and treated with recombinant human catalase (50,000 U/kg) by inhalation. The survival time and survival rates of H1N1 induced pneumonia mice were increased by treatment with recombinant human catalase. Protective efficacy of catalase was also observed in lung histology, anti-oxidant parameters, pulmonary pathology and influenza viral titer in lungs in mice. These observations were associated with increased serum superoxide and hydroxyl radical anion scavenging capacities. This study strongly indicated that recombinant catalase might be a potential therapy for H1N1 influenza-induced pneumonia.     

Negative regulation of lung inflammation and immunopathology by TNF-α during acute influenza infection

Lung immunopathology is the main cause of influenza-mediated morbidity and death, and much of its molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Whereas tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is traditionally considered a proinflammatory cytokine, its role in influenza immunopathology is unresolved. We have investigated this issue by using a model of acute H1N1 influenza infection established in wild-type and TNF-α-deficient mice and evaluated lung viral clearance, inflammatory responses, and immunopathology. Whereas TNF-α was up-regulated in the lung after influenza infection, it was not required for normal influenza viral clearance. However, TNF-α deficiency led not only to a greater extent of illness but also to heightened lung immunopathology and tissue remodeling. The severe lung immunopathology was associated with increased inflammatory cell infiltration, anti-influenza adaptive immune responses, and expression of cytokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and fibrotic growth factor, TGF-β1. Thus, in vivo neutralization of MCP-1 markedly attenuated lung immunopathology and blunted TGF-β1 production following influenza infection in these hosts. On the other hand, in vivo transgenic expression of MCP-1 worsened lung immunopathology following influenza infection in wild-type hosts. Thus, TNF-α is dispensable for influenza clearance; however, different from the traditional belief, this cytokine is critically required for negatively regulating the extent of lung immunopathology during acute influenza infection.     

Doxycycline treatment attenuates acute lung injury in mice infected with virulent influenza H3N2 virus: involvement of matrix metalloproteinases

Acute respiratory distress syndrome, a severe form of acute lung injury (ALI), is a major cause of death during influenza pneumonia. We have provided evidence for the involvement of recruited neutrophils, their toxic enzymes such as myeloperoxidase and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and neutrophil extracellular traps in aggravating alveolar-capillary damage. In this study, we investigated the effects of doxycycline (DOX), an inhibitor of MMPs, on influenza-induced ALI. BALB/c mice were infected with a sublethal dose of mouse-adapted virulent influenza A/Aichi/2/68 (H3N2) virus, and administered daily with 20mg/kg or 60 mg/kg DOX orally. The effects of DOX on ALI were determined by measuring inflammation, capillary leakage, and MMP activities. Furthermore, levels of T1-α (a membrane protein of alveolar type I epithelium) and thrombomodulin (an endothelial protein) in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were evaluated by Western blot analysis. Our results demonstrate significantly decreased inflammation and protein leakage in the lungs after DOX treatment. Levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity, T1-α and thrombomodulin were also diminished in the DOX-treated group. These findings were corroborated by histopathologic analyses, which demonstrated significant reduction in lung damage. Although DOX treatment reduced ALI, there were no effects on virus titers and body weights. Taken together, these results demonstrate that DOX may be useful in ameliorating ALI during influenza pneumonia. Further studies are warranted to determine whether DOX can be used in combination with anti-viral agents to alleviate severe influenza pneumonia.     

Inhibitory effects and related molecular mechanisms of total flavonoids in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mosla chinensis</Emphasis> Maxim against H1N1 influenza virus

Objective

The Shixiangru (Mosla chinensis Maxim) total flavonoids (STF) mainly contain luteolin and apigenin. The study aims to examine the inhibitory effects of STF on anti-H1N1 influenza virus and its related molecular mechanisms in pneumonia mice.

Methods

The viral pneumonia mice were treated with Ribavirin or various doses of STF. We observed histological changes of lung by immunohistochemistry and measured lung index to value anti-influenza virus effects of STF. The concentrations of inflammatory cytokines and anti-oxidant factors were detected by ELISA. RT-PCR and western blot assays were used to determine the expression level of TLR pathway’s key genes and proteins in lung tissues.

Results

We found that the pathological changes of lung in the viral pneumonia mice obviously alleviated by STF treatments and the STF (288 or 576 mg/kg) could significantly decrease lung indices. Moreover, the up-regulation (IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and NO) and down-regulation (IL-2, SOD and GSH) of inflammatory cytokines and anti-oxidant factors were associated with higher clearance of virus and reduction of inflammatory lung tissue damage. Meanwhile, the expression levels of TLR3, TLR7, MyD88, TRAF3 and NF-κB p65 of the TLR pathway were reduced by STF treatment.

Conclusions

This study suggested that STF may be a promising candidate for treating H1N1 influenza and subsequent viral pneumonia.

     

感冒双解合剂对流感病毒FM1感染小鼠肺部炎性损伤的影响

目的： 探讨治疗流行性感冒临床有效方剂感冒双解合剂对肺部炎性损伤的影响，从而探讨感冒双解合剂抗流感炎性损伤的作用机制。方法: 以流感病毒亚洲甲型鼠肺适应株（FM1）感染小鼠为模型，采用HE染色法观察小鼠肺组织的炎性病理改变，采用双抗体夹心ABC-ELISA法观察感冒双解合剂干预治疗后小鼠肺组织肿瘤细胞因子-α(TNF-α)、γ-干扰素(IFN-γ)、白细胞介素-10 (IL-10)含量的变化。结果: 流感病毒感染小鼠后，感染模型组小鼠肺组织显示为重度间质性肺炎的病变，感冒双解合剂组肺病理改变较感染模型组炎症表现减轻，显示为轻度间质性肺炎病变。感染模型组TNF-α、IFN-γ、IL-10的蛋白表达高于正常空白组，两者比较，差异显著（P<0.05或P<0.01）；感冒双解合剂组TNF-α、IFN-γ的表达较之感染模型组降低，IL-10的表达较之感染模型组升高，差异显著（P<0.05或P<0.01）。结论: 感冒双解合剂可能通过抑制炎性细胞因子TNF-α和IFN-γ的表达，提高抗炎因子IL-10的表达水平，减轻炎性损伤的作用。     

Neurovirulence of H7N7 influenza A virus: Brain stem encephalitis accompanied with aspiration pneumonia in mice

Summary. A mouse-adapted influenza A virus, A/equine/London/1416/73-MA (H7N7) caused viral pneumonia, ganglionitis and encephalitis after intranasal inoculation in mice. Virological and pathological data suggested that this virus spreads to the brain by both hematogenous and transneuronal routes, and produces encephalitic lesions similar to those seen in mice infected with H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza A viruses by intranasal infection. Some mice infected with this strain were affected by aspiration pneumonia, which may be caused by neurogenic dysfunction of the pharyngeal/laryngeal reflex due to brain stem encephalitis.     

Inhaled nitric oxide therapy fails to improve outcome in experimental severe influenza

In vitro, nitric oxide (NO) has been shown to have antimicrobial activity against a wide range of viruses, including influenza A virus. Therefore, we hypothesized that inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) would increase survival in vivo by reducing the viral load in C57Bl/6 mice infected with a lethal dose of influenza A/WSN/33 (H1N1; WSN/33) virus. NO was delivered to influenza-infected mice either continuously or intermittently at 80 or 160 ppm, respectively, using both prophylactic and post-infection treatment strategies. Murine survival and weight loss were assessed, and lung viral load was quantified via plaque assay. Here, we report that iNO administered prophylactically or post-influenza infection failed to improve survival of infected mice. No difference in lung viral load was observed between experimental groups. Although NO has antiviral activity against influenza A virus in vitro, iNO therapy provided no apparent benefit when used for treatment of influenza A virus infection in vivo.     

Influence of type 2 T cell responses on the severity of encephalitis associated with influenza virus infection

The role of type 2 T cell responses on the severity of post-infectious encephalitis was investigated in a mouse model of influenza virus infection. When mice were infected intracerebrally with 3.0 LD(50) of A/NWS33 strain of influenza virus, they all showed clinical signs of encephalitis, and 90% of them died within 10 days of the infection. However, the post-infectious encephalitis was not demonstrated in mice exposed to 0.5 LD50 of the same virus. The mortality rates of mice infected with 0.5 LD(50) of the virus were increased to levels observed in mice exposed to 3.0 LD(50) of influenza virus infection, after the administration of a mixture of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10 (2 ng/mouse each; immediately, 1 and 2 days after the infection). In contrast, mortality rates of mice exposed to 3.0 LD(50) of influenza virus were substantially decreased when these mice were treated with a mixture of monoclonal antibodies directed against IL-4 and IL-10. A predominance of type 2 T cell responses was demonstrated in splenic T cells of mice infected with 3.0 LD(50) of influenza virus, although these responses were minimal in mice infected with 0.5 LD(50) of the virus. After the treatment with the mixture of type 2 cytokines, an increase in the type 2 T cell responses in mice exposed to 0.5 LD(50) of the virus was shown. These results indicate that type 2 T cell responses associated with the viral infection play an important role in the severity of post-infectious encephalitis induced in mice by the intracerebral infection of influenza A virus.     

Excessive neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps contribute to acute lung injury of influenza pneumonitis

Complications of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are common among critically ill patients infected with highly pathogenic influenza viruses. Macrophages and neutrophils constitute the majority of cells recruited into infected lungs, and are associated with immunopathology in influenza pneumonia. We examined pathological manifestations in models of macrophage- or neutrophil-depleted mice challenged with sublethal doses of influenza A virus H1N1 strain PR8. Infected mice depleted of macrophages displayed excessive neutrophilic infiltration, alveolar damage, and increased viral load, later progressing into ARDS-like pathological signs with diffuse alveolar damage, pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, and hypoxemia. In contrast, neutrophil-depleted animals showed mild pathology in lungs. The brochoalveolar lavage fluid of infected macrophage-depleted mice exhibited elevated protein content, T1-α, thrombomodulin, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and myeloperoxidase activities indicating augmented alveolar-capillary damage, compared to neutrophil-depleted animals. We provide evidence for the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), entangled with alveoli in areas of tissue injury, suggesting their potential link with lung damage. When co-incubated with infected alveolar epithelial cells in vitro, neutrophils from infected lungs strongly induced NETs generation, and augmented endothelial damage. NETs induction was abrogated by anti-myeloperoxidase antibody and an inhibitor of superoxide dismutase, thus implying that NETs generation is induced by redox enzymes in influenza pneumonia. These findings support the pathogenic effects of excessive neutrophils in acute lung injury of influenza pneumonia by instigating alveolar-capillary damage.     

Predominant pathogenic role of tumor necrosis factor in experimental colitis in mice

Antibodies to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α have been recently proposed as effective treatment for patients with Crohn's disease. Here, we analyze the functional role of TNF-α in a mouse model of chronic intestinal inflammation induced by the hapten reagent 2,4,6,-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) that mimics some characteristics of Crohn's disease in humans. Macrophage-enriched lamina propria (LP) mononuclear cells from mice with TNBS-induced colitis produced 10–30-fold higher levels of TNF-α mRNA and protein than cells from control mice. When mice with chronic colitis were treated by intraperitoneal injection of antibodies to TNF-α, an improvement of both the clinical and histopathologic signs of disease was found. Isolated macrophage-enriched LP cells from anti-TNF-α-treated mice produced strikingly less pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 in cell culture. The predominant role of TNF-α in the mouse TNBS-induced colitis model was further underlined by the finding that striking colonic inflammation and lethal pancolitis was induced in TNF-α-transgenic mice upon TNBS treatment. Conversely, no significant TNBS-induced colitis could be induced in mice in which the TNF-α gene had been inactivated by homologous recombination. Complementation of TNF-α function in TNF^?/? mice by the expression of a mouse TNF-α transgene was sufficient to reverse this effect. Taken together, the data provide direct evidence for a predominant role of TNF-α in a mouse model of chronic intestinal inflammation and encourage further clinical trials with antibodies to TNF-α for the treatment of patients with Crohn's disease.     

TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha enhance influenza-A-virus-induced chemokine gene expression in human A549 lung epithelial cells

Lung epithelial cells are the primary cellular targets for respiratory virus pathogens such as influenza and parainfluenza viruses. Here, we have analyzed influenza A, influenza B and Sendai virus-induced chemokine response in human A549 lung epithelial cells. Influenza virus infection resulted in low CCL2/MCP-1, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL8/IL-8 and CXCL10/IP-10 production at late times of infection. However, when cells were pretreated with TNF-α or IFN-α, influenza-A-virus-induced chemokine production was greatly enhanced. Cytokine pretreatment resulted in enhanced expression of RIG-I, IKKε, interferon regulatory factor (IRF)1, IRF7 and p50 proteins. Most importantly, influenza-A-virus-induced DNA binding of IRF1, IRF3, IRF7 and NF-κB onto CXCL10 ISRE and NF-κB elements, respectively, was markedly enhanced in cytokine-pretreated cells. Our results suggest that IFN-α and TNF-α have a significant role in priming epithelial cells for higher cytokine and chemokine production in influenza A virus infection.     

抗流感病毒性肺炎的有效中药复方筛选及机制研究

目的:将免疫学原理应用于流感病毒性肺炎的制备,从而筛选出有效防治流感病毒性肺炎的中药复方,并进一步探讨该复方的作用机制。方法:淤用浓度为75 mg/ (kg•d)的免疫抑制剂短暂抑制小鼠免疫功能再进行A 型流感病毒滴鼻感染,实验设多组中药复方组,同步设奥司他韦组、模型组以及正常组,灌胃给予相应的临床等效剂量药物7 d 后,处理动物,进行指标检测,筛选出有效中药复方。于建立流感病毒性肺炎模型,实验设麻杏石甘汤的低、中、高剂量组,奥司他韦组、模型组和正常组,灌胃给予相应临床等效剂量药物7 d 后,处理动物,进行指标检测。结果:淤麻杏石甘汤、小柴胡汤、葛根汤,银翘散等中药复方中对小鼠肺炎均有一定的疗效,其中以麻杏石甘汤最为突出,可显著减轻肺部炎症等。于麻杏石甘汤可以改善小鼠的一般状况、肺部炎症和调控细胞因子的表达,上调脾指数,其中麻杏石甘汤中、高剂量组总体治疗效果更为显著。结论:免疫抑制的流感病毒性肺炎小鼠模型在筛选抗流感病毒性肺炎的中药复方中具有较好的实验研究价值,筛选出来的麻杏石甘汤作为有效的抗流感病毒性肺炎的中药复方,其可能的作用机制是通过提高机体的免疫功能,调节细胞因子的表达和分泌,从而减轻肺部炎症,改善小鼠的一般状况。     

In vitro immunomodulatory activity of celastrol against influenza A virus infection

Context: The influenza A virus (IAV) causes severe respiratory disease that remains a leading reason for morbidity and mortality. Previous studies have indicated that influenza complications in addition to viral replication are due to overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, a new compound is needed to be used with current antiviral drugs to modulate overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines in IAV infection.

Objective: This study investigated the effect of celastrol on mRNA expression and concentration levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL6) that are induced by influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1; PR8) in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells. The effect of this compound on virus titration and viral mRNA expression was also investigated.

Methods: Confluent MDCK cells were infected with influenza virus (H1N1; PR8) and treated with celastrol at different concentrations. After incubation, mRNA expression and concentrations of TNFα and IL6 were investigated using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and ELISA. The viral mRNA expression and virus titration were investigated using real-time PCR and 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID₅₀) assay, respectively.

Results: mRNA expression and concentrations of TNFα and IL6 increased significantly in control virus compared to cell control, and decreased significantly when compared with control virus after celastrol treatment. Viral mRNA expression and virus titration did not decrease after celastrol treatment.

Conclusion: Due to reducing mRNA expression and concentrations of TNFα and IL6, celastrol can serve as a suitable choice to control cytokine-induced inflammation in IAV infection, and therefore it can be used with current antiviral drugs.