Tumor cell recognition by the NK cell activating receptor NKG2D

Evidence for increased tumor incidence in NKG2D-deficient mice has set NKG2D as the first innate immune receptor implicated in immunosurveillance of tumors. In this viewpoint article, we discuss recent genetic insight into NKG2D-mediated suppression of spontaneous tumor development in the context of NKG2D signaling properties. Moreover, we identify unresolved issues and consider how an understanding of NKG2D-receptor and -ligand biology can facilitate successful therapeutic intervention of human cancer.     

A dual function of NKG2D ligands in NK-cell activation

NK-cell killing requires both the expression of activating receptor ligands and low MHC class I expression by target cells. Here we demonstrate that the expression of any of the murine ligands for the NK-cell activating receptor NKG2D results in a concomitant reduction in MHC class I expression. We show this both in tumor cell lines and in vivo. NK-cell lysis is enhanced by the decrease in MHC class I expression, suggesting the change is biologically relevant. These results demonstrate that NKG2D ligand expression on target cells not only allows for activating receptor recognition, but also actively reduces expression of the inhibitory ligand, MHC class I, leading to enhanced recognition and killing by NK cells.     

c‐Cbl regulates MICA‐ but not ULBP2‐induced NKG2D down‐modulation in human NK cells

The NKG2D activating receptor on human NK cells mediates “altered self” recognition, as its ligands (NKG2DLs) are upregulated on target cells in a variety of stress conditions. Evidence collected in the past years shows that, even though expression of NKG2DLs acts as a danger signal that renders tumor cells susceptible to cytotoxicity, chronic exposure to soluble or membrane‐bound NKG2DLs can lead to down‐modulation of receptor expression and impairment of NKG2D‐mediated cell functions. Here, we evaluated whether different cell‐bound NKG2DLs, namely MICA and ULBP2, are equivalently able to induce NKG2D down‐modulation on human NK cells. We found that although both ligands reduce NKG2D surface expression, MICA promotes a stronger receptor down‐modulation than ULBP2, leading to a severe impairment of NKG2D‐dependent NK‐cell cytotoxicity. We also provide evidence that the ubiquitin pathway and c‐Cbl direct MICA‐induced but not ULBP2‐induced NKG2D internalization and degradation, thus identifying a molecular mechanism to explain the differential effects of MICA and ULBP2 on NKG2D expression. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms employed by the different NKG2DLs to control NKG2D surface expression could be useful for the development of anti‐tumor strategies to restore a normal level of NKG2D receptors on human NK cells.     

妊娠期uNK、pNK细胞NKG2A与NKG2D的表达及其生物学意义的研究

目的:研究妊娠期妇女子宫NK细胞(uNK细胞)与外周血NK细胞(pNK细胞)表面NKG2A和NKG2D及其相应配体的表达,探讨uNK细胞表面NKG2A和NKG2D的不平衡表达与母胎界面所形成的免疫耐受关系。方法:采用流式细胞术检测30例孕6～9周的正常妊娠妇女uNK细胞和pNK细胞NKG2A、NKG2D的表达状况;RTPCR技术检测绒毛膜组织HLAE、MICA的表达。结果:子宫NK细胞NKG2A的表达显著高于外周血NK细胞,二者分别为(97.86±1.75)%与(33.35±10.92)%;子宫NK细胞NKG2D的表达水平与外周血NK细胞相近,分别为(93.21±4.52)%与(97.80±1.72)%,滋养层组织仅检测到HLAEmRNA的表达。结论:妊娠期子宫NK细胞表面高表达抑制性受体NKG2A,同时滋养层组织表达相应的配体HLAE,这可能是维持母胎界面免疫耐受的重要因素。     

HMBOX1 negatively regulates NK cell functions by suppressing the NKG2D/DAP10 signaling pathway

HMBOX1 is a new member of the homeobox family. Homeobox members have been reported to participate in embryonic development and systemic metabolism, but the function of HMBOX1 remains unclear, especially in the hematopoietic system. Here, we show that HMBOX1 is expressed at a high level in primary human NK cells but is expressed at much lower levels in NK cell lines. Overexpression of HMBOX1 significantly inhibited NK cell activities, including natural cytotoxicity against tumor cells, the level of CD107a (a marker protein for degranulation) and the production of cytolytic proteins (perforin and granzymes). More interestingly, HMBOX1 negatively regulated the expression of NKG2D and the activation of the NKG2D/DAP10 signaling pathway in NK cells. This effect was reversed by knocking down HMBOX1. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that HMBOX1 may act as a negative regulator of NK cell functions via suppressing the NKG2D/DAP10 signaling pathway.     

卵巢肿瘤患者自然杀伤细胞活化性受体NKG2D与其配体MICA表达的初步研究

目的:研究卵巢癌、良性卵巢肿瘤患者外周血NK细胞表面活化性受体NKG2D的表达及局部组织中相应配体MICA的表达情况,并结合临床病理因素分析探讨宿主NK细胞受体NKG2D在抗卵巢癌中的作用及其与肿瘤免疫逃逸的关系。方法:对4 2例卵巢癌、2 3例良性卵巢肿瘤及2 0例正常妇女,采用流式细胞术检测外周血NK细胞NKG2D的表达状况,RT PCR技术检测在上述部分相应组织标本中MICA的表达。结果:恶性、良性卵巢肿瘤患者及正常人外周血NK细胞NKG2D的表达水平分别为( 94 2 3±6 0 2 ) %、( 98 70±0 98) %、( 98 6 1±1 5 9) % ,恶性组与另两组之间比较,差异有统计学意义(P <0 0 5 ) ;相应配体MICA在卵巢癌组织中的表达率较良性卵巢肿瘤中明显增高,差异有统计学意义(P <0 0 1) ;在卵巢癌病人是否绝经、不同组织类型、分化程度、手术分期及是否淋巴转移等各组临床病理情况下,其表达率未见明显差异(P >0 0 5 )。结论:卵巢恶性肿瘤患者外周血NK细胞活性降低,其活化性受体NKG2D表达的下降是NK细胞活性下降的原因之一。NKG2D的配体MICA的基因表达可能与卵巢癌的恶性转化有一定的相关性,卵巢癌的免疫逃逸可能与NKG2D表达下调及其配体MI CA的表达升高有关     

Loss of NKG2D in murine NK cells leads to increased perforin production upon long-term stimulation with IL-2

NK cells are innate lymphocytes responsible for lysis of pathogen-infected and transformed cells. One of the major activating receptors required for target cell recognition is the NK group 2D (NKG2D) receptor. Numerous reports show the necessity of NKG2D for effective tumor immune surveillance. Further studies identified NKG2D as a key element allowing tumor immune escape. We here use a mouse model with restricted deletion of NKG2D in mature NKp46⁺ cells (NKG2D^ΔNK). NKG2D^ΔNK NK cells develop normally, have an unaltered IFN-γ production but kill tumor cell lines expressing NKG2D ligands (NKG2DLs) less efficiently. However, upon long-term stimulation with IL-2, NKG2D-deficient NK cells show increased levels of the lytic molecule perforin. Thus, our findings demonstrate a dual function of NKG2D for NK cell cytotoxicity; while NKG2D is a crucial trigger for cytotoxicity of tumor cells expressing activating ligands it is also capable to limit perforin production in IL-2 activated NK cells.     

NK cell‐mediated anti‐leukemia cytotoxicity is enhanced using a NKG2D ligand MICA and anti‐CD20 scfv chimeric protein

NK cells are important innate cytotoxic lymphocytes that have potential in treatment of leukemia. Engagement of NKG2D receptor on NK cells enhances the target cytotoxicity. Here, we produced a fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of the NKG2D ligand MICA and the anti‐CD20 single‐chain variable fragment (scfv). This recombinant protein is capable of binding both NK cells and CD20⁺ tumor cells. Using a human NKG2D reporter cell system we developed, we showed that this fusion protein could decorate CD20⁺ tumor cells with MICA extracellular domain and activate NK through NKG2D. We further demonstrated that this protein could specifically induce the ability of a NK cell line (NKL) and primary NK cells to lyse CD20⁺ leukemia cells. Moreover, we found that downregulation of surface HLA class I expression in the target cells improved NKL‐mediated killing. Our results demonstrated that this recombinant protein specifically lyses leukemia cells by NK cells, which may lead to development of a novel strategy for treating leukemia and other tumors.     

Requirements for control of B‐cell lymphoma by NK cells

The role of NK cells in the control of endogenously arising tumors is still unclear. We monitored activation and effector functions of NK cells in a c‐myc‐transgenic mouse model of spontaneously arising lymphoma. At early stages, tumors demonstrated reduced MHC class I expression and increased expression of natural killer group 2D ligands (NKG2D‐L). NK cells in these tumors showed an activated phenotype that correlated with the loss of tumor MHC class I. With increasing tumor load however, NK‐cell effector functions became progressively paralyzed or exhausted. In later stages of disease, tumors re‐expressed MHC class I and lost NKG2D‐L, suggesting a role of these two signals for NK cell‐mediated tumor control. Testing a panel of lymphoma cell lines expressing various MHC class I and NKG2D‐L levels suggested that NK cell‐dependent tumor control required a priming and a triggering signal that were provided by MHC class I down‐regulation and by NKG2D‐L, respectively. Deleting either of the “two signals” resulted in tumor escape. At early disease stages, immune stimulation through TLR‐ligands in vivo efficiently delayed lymphoma growth in a strictly NK cell‐dependent manner. Thus, NK‐receptor coengagement is crucial for NK‐cell functions in vivo and especially for NK cell‐mediated tumor surveillance.     

NKG2D engagement on human NK cells leads to DNAM-1 hypo-responsiveness through different converging mechanisms

Natural killer (NK) cell activation is regulated by activating and inhibitory receptors that facilitate diseased cell recognition. Among activating receptors, NKG2D and DNAM-1 play a pivotal role in anticancer immune responses since they bind ligands upregulated on transformed cells. During tumor progression, however, these receptors are frequently downmodulated and rendered functionally inactive. Of note, NKG2D internalization has been associated with the acquisition of a dysfunctional phenotype characterized by the cross-tolerization of unrelated activating receptors. However, our knowledge of the consequences of NKG2D engagement is still incomplete. Here, by cytotoxicity assays combined with confocal microscopy, we demonstrate that NKG2D engagement on human NK cells impairs DNAM-1-mediated killing through two different converging mechanisms: by the upregulation of the checkpoint inhibitory receptor TIGIT, that in turn suppresses DNAM-1-mediated cytotoxic function, and by direct inhibition of DNAM-1-promoted signaling. Our results highlight a novel interplay between NKG2D and DNAM-1/TIGIT receptors that may facilitate neoplastic cell evasion from NK cell-mediated clearance.     

NKG2D in NK and T Cell-Mediated Immunity

One of the best characterized NK cell receptors is NKG2D, a highly conserved C-type lectin-like membrane glycoprotein expressed on essentially all NK cells, as well as on γδ-TcR⁺ T cells and αβ-TcR⁺ CD8⁺ T cells, in humans and mice. Here we review recent studies implicating NKG2D in T cell and NK cell-mediated immunity to viruses and tumors, and its potential role in autoimmune diseases and allogeneic bone marrow transplantation.     

Low expression of CD161 and NKG2D activating NK receptor is associated with impaired NK cell cytotoxicity in metastatic melanoma patients

Natural killer (NK) cells play a role in the innate and adaptive antitumor immune responses. The activity of NK cells is regulated by functionally opposing, activating and inhibitory receptors whose balance ultimately determines whether target cells will be susceptible to NK cell mediated lysis. As melanoma is an immunogenic tumor, the effect of immunomodulating agents is consistently investigated. In this study in 79 metastatic melanoma (MM) patients and 52 controls NK activity, expression of activating NKG2D and CD161 receptors and KIR receptors, CD158a and CD158b, on freshly isolated PBL and NK cells were evaluated. Native NK cell activity of melanoma patients in clinical stage I–III and MM patients was determined against NK sensitive K562, NK resistant Daudi, human melanoma FemX, HeLa and HL 60 target tumor cell lines. In addition, predictive pretherapy immunomodulating effect after 18 h in vitro treatments of PBL of MM patients with rh IL-2, IFN-α (IFN), 13-cis retinoic acid (RA) and combination IFN-α and RA was evaluated with respect to NK cell lyses against K562 and FemX cell lines. In this study we show for the first time that low expression of CD161 and activating NKG2D receptors, without increased expression of KIR receptors CD158a and CD158b, as well as a decrease in the cytotoxic, CD16^bright NK cell subset, is associated with a significant impairment in NK cell activity in MM patients. Furthermore, the predictive pretherapy finding that IL-2, IFN, IFN and RA, unlike RA alone, can enhance NK cell activity of MM patients against FemX melanoma tumor cell line can be of help in the design and development of therapeutic regimens, considering that it has recently been shown that low-dose combination of different immunomodulators represents the most promising approach in the therapy of MM.     

Umbilical cord blood plasma contains soluble NKG2D ligands that mediate loss of natural killer cell function and cytotoxicity

NK cells play a key role in innate elimination of virally infected or neoplastic cells but they can be circumvented by immunoevasive mechanisms enabling viral spread or tumor progression. Engagement of the NKG2D activating receptor with soluble forms of its ligand is one such mechanism of inducing NK cell hyporesponsiveness. Interestingly, this immunoevasive strategy among others is described at the maternal‐fetal interface where tolerance of the semi‐allogeneic fetus is required to allow successful human pregnancy. Understanding of maternal‐fetal tolerance is increasing but mechanisms preventing alloreactivity of fetal immune cells against the maternal host are less well understood. The study of umbilical cord blood has enabled insight of the fetal immune system, which appears immature and inert. We have found that soluble NKG2D ligands (sNKG2DLs) are present in cord blood plasma (CBP) and associate with adult NK cell hyporesponsiveness demonstrated by reduced CD107a expression and secretion of IFN‐γ upon stimulation. The capacity of NK cells to kill K562 cells or proliferate was also reduced by incubation with CBP; however, physical removal of sNKG2DL from CBP restored K562 lytic function and NKG2D expression. Therefore, our results strongly suggest sNKG2DLs are expressed in CBP as a mechanism of fetal‐maternal tolerance in human pregnancy.     

Murine cytomegalovirus regulation of NKG2D ligands

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous pathogen that causes morbidity risk in immunologically suppressed and immunodeficient patients including congenital infections. Approaches to curb the consequences of HCMV infections are restricted by a lack of complete understanding of viral pathogenesis. The infection of mice with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) as a model of HCMV infection has been particularly useful in elucidating the role of innate and adaptive immune response mechanisms. A large number of cytomegalovirus genes modulate the innate and the adaptive host immune response. The products of several MCMV genes are involved in subverting the natural killer (NK) cell response by down-modulating cellular ligands for the NKG2D receptor expressed on NK cells and CD8⁺ T cells. Mutant viruses lacking these immunoevasion genes are attenuated with respect to virus growth in vivo. Given the importance of the NKG2D receptor in controlling both NK- and T cell-mediated immunity, it is of tremendous importance to understand the molecular mechanisms and consequences of viral regulation of the NKG2D ligands.     

CEACAM1 on activated NK cells inhibits NKG2D‐mediated cytolytic function and signaling

Carcinoembryonic antigen‐related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) is expressed on activated natural killer (NK) cells wherein it inhibits lysis of CEACAM1‐bearing tumor cell lines. The mechanism for this is unknown. Here, we show that interleukin‐2‐induced expression of CEACAM1 on both mouse and primary human NK cells impairs the ability of NK gene complex group 2 member D (NKG2D) to stimulate cytolysis of CEACAM1‐bearing cells. This process requires the expression of CEACAM1 on the NK cells and on the tumor cells, which is consistent with the involvement of trans‐homophilic interactions between CEACAM1. Mechanistically, co‐engagement of NKG2D and CEACAM1 results in a biochemical association between these two surface receptors and the recruitment of Src homology phosphatase 1 by CEACAM1 that leads to dephosphorylation of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav1 and blockade of downstream signaling that is associated with the initiation of cytolysis. Thus, CEACAM1 on activated NK cells functions as an inhibitory receptor for NKG2D‐mediated cytolysis, which has important implications for understanding the means by which CEACAM1 expression adversely affects tumor immunity.     

CMV drives clonal expansion of NKG2C+ NK cells expressing self-specific KIRs in chronic hepatitis patients

Natural killer (NK) cells are affected by infection with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) manifested by increased expression of the HLA-E binding activating receptor NKG2C. We here show that HCMV seropositivity was associated with a profound expansion of NKG2C(+) CD56(dim) NK cells in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Multi-color flow cytometry revealed that the expanded NKG2C(+) CD56(dim) NK cells displayed a highly differentiated phenotype, expressed high amounts of granzyme B and exhibited polyfunctional responses (CD107a, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) to stimulation with antibody-coated as well as HLA-E expressing target cells but not when stimulated with IL-12/IL-18. More importantly, NKG2C(+) CD56(dim) NK cells had a clonal expression pattern of inhibitory killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) specific for self-HLA class I molecules, with predominant usage of KIR2DL2/3. KIR engagement dampened NKG2C-mediated activation suggesting that such biased expression of self-specific KIRs may preserve self-tolerance and limit immune-pathology during viral infection. Together, these findings shed new light on how the human NK-cell compartment adjusts to HCMV infection resulting in clonal expansion and differentiation of educated and polyfunctional NK cells.     

Engagement of NK receptor NKG2D,but not 2B4, results in self-reactive CD8+T cells and autoimmune vitiligo

In this study, we demonstrate that engagement of two different natural killer receptors (NKRs) can lead to contrasting effects in the development of self-reactive CD8+T cells and autoimmune vitiligo. Specifically, using a mouse model, we show that CD8+T-cell targeting of a melanocyte antigen, tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TRP-1) in combination with delivery of the NKG2D ligands (Rae-1? or H60), results in strong CD8+T-cell responses against TRP-1 and in the development of autoimmune vitiligo. In contrast, targeting of TRP-1 in combination with delivery of CD48, the natural ligand for the NKR 2B4, leads to reduced formation of TRP-1-reactive CD8+T-cell responses and decreased development of vitiligo. These data indicate that autoimmune vitiligo is limited by insufficient signals, despite plentiful self-reactive T cells in the peripheral immune system. To our knowledge, this is the first experimental evidence supporting the role of NKRs in modulating CD8+T-cell autoimmune vitiligo. This study supports the utilization of NKR signaling as a therapeutic avenue toward prevention of vitiligo and other autoimmune diseases.     

氧化应激可选择性诱导细胞的NKG2D配体的表达

目的 探讨氧化应激与细胞NKG2D配体表达的关系,分析氧化应激对NK细胞功能的影响。方法 加H2O2诱导培养的肿瘤细胞处于氧化应激状态。用RT-PCR、Real-time PCR和流式细胞仪等方法分析细胞多种NKG2D配体的表达。用CCK-8法检测NK92细胞对肿瘤细胞的杀伤活性。结果 氧化应激可诱导肿瘤细胞多种NKG2D配体的表达,不同的肿瘤细胞诱导表达的NKG2D配体不同;NKG2D配体表达上调可有效提高NK细胞的细胞毒活性,此效应可被抗NKG2D抗体所阻断。结论 NKG2D配体可能在机体的免疫应答中发挥正向的调节作用。