High blood pressure and cardiovascular disease mortality risk among U.S. adults: the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey mortality follow-up study

PURPOSE: We sought to examine whether prehypertension is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality risk and whether the association of blood pressure with CVD outcome is modified by social demographics or hypertension treatment and control. METHODS: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and mortality follow-up through 2000 were used to estimate the relative risk of death from CVD associated with hypertension and prehypertension, after adjusting for confounding and modifying factors. RESULTS: Compared with normotension, the relative risks of CVD mortality were 1.23 (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.85-1.79, p=0.26) for prehypertension, 1.64 (95% CI 1.11-2.41, p=0.01) for hypertension, 1.74 (95% CI 1.28-2.49, p=0.007) for uncontrolled hypertension, and 1.15 (95% CI 0.79-1.80, p=0.53) for controlled hypertension. Hypertensive adults <65 years and non-Hispanic blacks had a 3.86-fold and a 4.65-fold increased CVD mortality risk respectively. Age, gender, and race/ethnicity stratified analyses showed no associations between prehypertension and CVD mortality. However, blood pressure at a high range of prehypertension (130-139/84-89 mmHg) was associated with increased risk of CVD mortality (hazard ratio 1.41, p<0.05) relative to blood pressure less than 120/80 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports a strong, significant, and independent association of elevated blood pressure with CVD mortality risk. Hypertension continued to greatly increase CVD morality risk, particularly among persons <65 years and non-Hispanic blacks. Treatment and control of hypertension eliminated the excess CVD mortality risk observed among the hypertension population.     

2018年中国成年居民高血压患病与控制状况研究

目的 了解中国≥18岁居民高血压患病、知晓、治疗与控制以及血压测量现况。方法 2018年中国慢性病及危险因素监测在全国31个省（直辖区、自治市）的298个县（区）,采用多阶段分层整群随机抽样方法抽取≥18岁常住居民194 779人,以面对面问卷调查和身体测量方法收集调查对象的人口统计学、高血压诊断与治疗和血压测量状况等信息,并采用经认证的医用上臂式电子血压计测量调查对象的血压值。本研究将其中完成调查且高血压相关信息完整的179 873人作为研究对象。按性别及年龄、城乡、文化程度、地理区域等分组分别计算血压均值、高血压患病率、患病知晓率、控制率、治疗率以及血压测量率等指标。所有结果采用基于设计的复杂抽样加权调整,以更好地估计中国成年人的状况。结果 2018年,中国≥18岁居民SBP均值为（127.7±18.8） mmHg（1 mmHg=0.133 kPa）,DBP为（76.8±11.2） mmHg。未诊断高血压的居民中,正常高值血压流行率为50.9%（95%CI：49.9%~51.9%）。成年居民高血压患病率为27.5%（95%CI：26.6%~28.4%）,男性［30.8%（95%CI：29.8%~31.9%）］高于女性［24.2%（95%CI：23.3%~25.1%）］,农村［29.4%（95%CI：28.4%~30.3%）］高于城市［25.7%（95%CI：24.4%~27.1%）］,华北地区［33.3%（95%CI：31.5%~35.2%）］和东北地区［32.7%（95%CI：28.1%~37.4%）］高于其他地区,组间差异均有统计学意义（P<0.000 1）。高血压患者的患病知晓率、治疗率和控制率分别为41.0%（95%CI：39.7%~42.4%）、34.9%（95%CI：33.6%~36.1%）和11.0%（95%CI：10.2%~11.8%）,女性和城市高血压患者的患病知晓率、治疗率和控制率均分别高于男性和农村居民（P<0.000 1）。未诊断高血压的居民中,41.9%（95%CI：40.7%~43.2%）曾在近3个月内主动或被动测量血压。结论 中国成年居民较高的高血压患病水平和较低的血压测量率,以及高血压患者未见明显改善的知晓、治疗和控制状况,提示高血压防治工作从危险因素干预到患者管理的各个环节仍有待加强,尤其是农村地区。     

Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Malaysia: a national study of 16,440 subjects

STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was conducted in all states of Malaysia to determine the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension. A stratified two-stage cluster sampling design with proportional allocation was used. METHODS: Trained nurses obtained two blood pressure measurements from each subject. Hypertension was defined as mean systolic blood pressure >140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure >90 mmHg, or a self-reported diagnosis of hypertension and taking antihypertensive medication. All data were analysed using Stata 9.2 software and took the complex survey design into account. A two-sided P-value of <0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of hypertension for subjects aged 15 years was 27.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 26.9-28.8). The prevalence of hypertension was significantly higher in males (29.6%, 95% CI 28.3-31.0) compared with females (26.0%, 95% CI 25.0-27.1). Multivariate logistic regression showed that the odds of having hypertension increased with increasing age, in males, in subjects with a family history of hypertension, with increasing body mass index, in non-smokers and with decreasing levels of education. Only 34.6% of the subjects with hypertension were aware of their hypertensive status, and 32.4 were taking antihypertensive medication. Amongst the latter group, only 26.8% had their blood pressure under control. The prevalence of hypertension amongst those aged 30 years has increased from 32.9% in 1996 to 40.5% in 2004. CONCLUSION: In Malaysia, the prevalence of hypertension is high, but levels of awareness, treatment and control are low. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive integrated population-based intervention programme to ameliorate the growing problem of hypertension in Malaysians.     

高血压、高血压前期、低血压的流行特征及与常见慢性病的关系

目的了解人群高血压、高血压前期和低血压的流行特征和影响因素，为进一步研究和防治提供依据。方法采用随机抽样的方法，随机抽取哈尔滨市城区2019人进行测量血压和相关因素调查。结果高血压、高血压前期、低血压的标化患病率分别为24．04％、16．91％、3．88％。高血压和高血压前期的流行特征相似，低血压的流行特征与高血压相反，高血压使糖尿病、冠心病、脑血管病、高血脂、肾脏疾病、肝脏疾病的患病危险增高，高血压前期使冠心病、脑血管病的患病危险增高，低血压对其他慢性病的患病无影响。结论该地区高血压的患病率高于全国平均水平，低血压患病率低于全国平均水平。高血压和高血压前期的流行特征相似，低血压与之相反，控制高血压、高血压前期可降低其他慢性病的发生。     

某体检人群血压水平与颈动脉斑块相关性的横断面研究

目的探讨血压水平与颈动脉斑块患病风险的相关性。方法选取2017年在解放军总医院第四医学中心进行颈部超声检查的某单位体检人群为研究对象,采集血压等生理、生化指标。将血压指标按连续变量(收缩压、舒张压和脉压差)和分类变量(是否高血压、血压分级和脉压差四分类)进行分析,采用Logistic回归模型分析该人群血压水平与颈动脉斑块的关联性。结果共纳入研究对象716名,其中男性321名(44.8%),女性395名(55.2%),高血压和颈动脉斑块的患病率分别为40.9%(293例)和40.4%(289例)。≥60岁、糖尿病、高血压以及腰围增加、收缩压、空腹血糖、糖化血红蛋白升高者的颈动脉斑块患病率更高(P<0.05)。随着血压分级和脉压差四分类水平的升高,颈动脉斑块患病风险呈现增高趋势(Ptrend<0.05)。Logistic回归模型分析结果显示,收缩压每升高1 mmHg使颈动脉斑块的患病风险增加了1.4%(95%CI:1.005~1.024);以非高血压人群为对照组,高血压人群的颈动脉斑块的患病风险增加了62.9%(95%CI:1.146~2.316),其中,女性高血压人群的颈动脉斑块患病风险增加106.3%(95%CI:1.242~3.427);以正常血压人群为对照组,正常高值、1级高血压、2和3级高血压的颈动脉斑块的患病风险分别增加了86.8%(95%CI:1.175~2.946)和84.8%(95%CI:1.098~3.110)和119.6%(95%CI:1.165~4.142);以脉压差<60 mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133 kPa)人群为对照组,脉压差≥60 mmHg组的颈动脉斑块的患病风险增加56.2%(95%CI:1.049~2.326),其中女性脉压差≥60 mmHg人群的颈动脉斑块风险增加了73.3%(95%CI:1.007~2.983);以脉压差四分类Q1(≤42 mmHg)人群为对照组,Q3(50~61 mmHg)和Q4(≥62 mmHg)人群颈动脉斑块的患病风险分别增加了92.2%(95%CI:1.173~3.149)和95.0%(95%CI:1.147~3.316)。结论血压和脉压差水平升高与颈动脉斑块患病风险升高相关联,防控血压和脉压差升高可能是防控颈动脉斑块的有效措施之一。     

2010年上海市15岁以上居民高血压流行现状

[目的]了解上海市15岁以上居民高血压流行现状。[方法]于2010年8—9月采用多阶段分层概率随机抽样的方法,对15808名常住居民进行问卷调查和血压测量,最终获得有效问卷15732份。[结果]通过人口加权,被调查人群的平均收缩压和平均舒张压分别为129．05mmHg（95％CI：128．47-129．63mmHg）、79．71mmHg（95％C,：79．44～79．99mmHg）;高血压患病率为31．15％（95％CI：29．79％-32．54％）、疾病知晓率为74．19％（95％CI：71．93％。76-33％）、治疗率为59．95％（95％C1：57．58％-62．28％）、控制率为30．59％（95％C1：28．32％～32．96％）。知晓率、治疗率和控制率为中心城区高于非中心城区、女性高于男性,差别均有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。[结论]上海市15岁以上居民平均血压偏高,患病情况严重。知晓率水平较高,治疗率、控制率水平需进一步提升。     

贵州省常住居民血压与睡眠时间关系调查

目的调查贵州省常住居民的睡眠时间和高血压的现状并探讨两者的关系。方法于2015-2016年基于多阶段分层抽样法,使用"中国重要心血管病患病率调查及关键技术研究的调查问卷"对贵州省15岁以上常住居民进行调查,并对其身高、体重、血压等进行体格检查。使用SPSS 22.0软件对所得数据进行描述分析和协方差分析。结果在调查的7412名常住居民中,男性3242人(43.74%),女性4170人(56.26%),总体平均年龄为(49.97±19.54)岁。调查对象中,有313例(4.22%)为睡眠时间不足,2832例(38.21%)为睡眠时间过长;正常血压2264例(30.54%),高血压患者2118例(28.58%)。在控制了年龄、BMI、疾病家族史等混杂因素后进行协方差分析,因变量为舒张压时,睡眠不足的人群舒张压比标准睡眠的舒张压高1.860 mm Hg(95%CI:0.594~3.125 mmHg,P=0.004);睡眠过长的人群舒张压比标准睡眠的舒张压高2.267 mmHg(95%CI:1.214~3.319 mmHg,P<0.001)。因变量为收缩压时,睡眠不足的人群收缩压比标准睡眠的收缩压高3.609 mmHg(95%CI:1.001~6.216 mmHg,P=0.007);睡眠过长的人群收缩压比标准睡眠的收缩压高4.322 mmHg(95%CI:2.154~6.490 mmHg,P<0.001)。结论调查对象中睡眠时间不足和睡眠时间过长的发生率较高,睡眠时间对高血压存在影响,睡眠时间不足或睡眠时间过长都会导致舒张压和收缩压的上升。     

铁路女职工高血压、高血糖、高脂血症与子宫肌瘤风险关联性研究

目的了解子宫肌瘤的患病风险与高血压、高血糖和高脂血症之间的关系。方法采用横断面研究方法,由体检医师于2008年对济南地区铁路系统6164名已婚在职女职工进行健康检查,妇科检查内容包括B超检查和妇科常规检查,并进行血压和空腹血糖、甘油三酯、胆固醇等指标的测定。同时以问卷方式收集研究对象的基本信息和疾病史等情况。按照研究对象是否患有子宫肌瘤分为两组,采用Logistic回归分析方法在控制其他影响因素条件下分析子宫肌瘤与高血压、高血糖、高脂血症之间的关联性。结果研究对象子宫肌瘤患病率为20.93%,平均年龄(40.07±8.20)岁;高血压、高血糖和高脂血症患病率分别为8.20%、3.09%和10.68%。高血压是子宫肌瘤的独立危险因素(OR=1.316,95%CI 1.064～1.627),舒张压每升高10mmHg子宫肌瘤患病风险增加17.1%(OR=1.171,95%CI 1.045～1.312)。结论高血压是子宫肌瘤独立的危险因素,并且子宫肌瘤患病风险随着舒张压水平的升高而增加。     

Development of blood pressure and the incidence of hypertension in men and women over an 18-year period: results of the Nijmegen Cohort Study.

The objective of this study was to determine the factors that influence diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and the incidence of hypertension. In 1977, DBP and cardiovascular risk factors were measured in 7092 men and women. In 1995, 2335 subjects participated at a second screening. Those patients already under hypertension treatment in 1977 were excluded. The DBP tracking was studied in subjects not under hypertension treatment during the study. Hypertension was defined on two ways in the analysis: under current hypertension treatment or a DBP > 95 mmHg measured at rescreening in 1995. Forty-seven percent of the subjects with a DBP < 75 mmHg in 1977 remained in the same category of DBP in 1995, and 7% had become hypertensive. Of the 75-84 mmHg group in 1977, 40% stayed in the same category in 1995 and 15% became hypertensive. Of the 85-94 mmHg category, 30% stayed in the same category and 30% became hypertensive in 1995. Of the highest category in 1977 (> 95 mmHg), 64% were still in that category in 1995. Baseline DBP in 1977 had the highest predictive value for future DBP. Weight gain over the years increased the risk for future hypertension: in contrast, there was no risk at a low DBP without weight gain. There is no need for regular check-ups for those patients with a low DBP who experience no weight gain. Borderline DBP (85-95 mmHg), together with weight gain, increases the risk of development of hypertension. The risk was especially high for men in the lower socioeconomic class.     

Prevalence and control of arterial hypertension in the south-east of Spain: A radical but still insufficient improvement

Stroke mortality rates in Spain are one of the highest in all of Europe. At the same time, the Murcia region (south-east Spain) shows, for both genders, the highest age-adjusted stroke mortality rates in all of Spain. The earliest available hypertension figure estimations for this area go back to 1981, when a high prevalence combined with an almost nonexistent control was detected. One decade later, updated prevalence estimations of hypertension are presented jointly with their degree of control and their association with other risk factors based on the results of a prevalence survey in a random population sample (n = 3,091). Arterial blood pressure was measured following the MONICA protocol, maintaining a tight quality control on between and within-observer variability. As hypertensive was considered as any person with systolic blood pressure (SBP) 140 mmHg or with diastolic blood pressure (DBP) 90 mmHg or with antihypertensive pharmacological treatment. Detected prevalence rises to 32.3% (CI 95%: 29.1%–35.5%) among males and to 23.7% (CI 95%: 21.4%– 26%) among females, maintaining its level regarding figures observed back in 1981. However, its control has been increased, especially among hypertensive women [from less than 5% in 1981 to 35% (95% CI: 32%–37.8%) at present]. Hypertension is strongly associated to hipercholesterolemia, overweight, obesity and diabetes (p < 0.01). On the contrary, it shows an opposite association with current smoking, higher educational level and leisure time physical activity (p < 0.01). The highest educational level was associated with better hypertension treatment and control. In summary, while hypertension prevalence is stabilized in our population, its control has improved in a measurable but still insufficient way. These results are in accordance with a decreasing trend in stroke mortality registered in the Murcia Region along the last decade.     

Clinical validation of an automatic device measuring blood pressure in the fingers.

BACKGROUND: To assess the agreement between a new automatic device (FS-20D) using a cuff-oscillometric method to measure arterial blood pressure (BP) in the fingers and a standard mercury sphygmomanometer. METHODS: The blood pressure measurements were taken in a sequential order, in a sample of both normotensive subjects (n. 57) and slight to moderate hypertensive patients (n. 28) without vascular complications. RESULTS: The mean sphygmomanometer-monitor difference was 0.52 +/- 4.57 mmHg for systolic and 0.25 +/- 4.41 mmHg for diastolic values; the agreement limits were: SBP -8.6 divided by 9.6 mmHg, 95% CI: -0.5 divided by 1.5; DBP: -8.6 divided by 9.1 mmHg, 95% CI: -0.7 divided by 1.2. The grade of agreement between the monitor and the sphygmomanometer was "A" (British Hypertension Society) for both systolic and diastolic values (difference of readings < 5 mmHg: 82%; < 10 mmHg: 97% for systolic blood pressure, 98% of diastolic blood pressure). CONCLUSIONS: The monitor was proved to be reliable with a good level of precision and accuracy. The FS-20D monitor may be used in self-monitoring of blood pressure of patients with slight to moderate hypertension.     

Health risk behaviours, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension among rural community people in Thailand

This cross-sectional study aimed to assess health risk behaviours, prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension and associated factors among Thai rural community people. 527 people, aged 35-60 years, were randomly sampled and interviewed. Two blood pressure (BP) measurements were assessed by standardized protocol. Hypertension was defined as a mean systolic BP > or = 140 mmHg or diastolic BP > or = 90 mmHg. 76.9% lacked regular exercise, 28.5% were current alcohol drinkers, and 23.7% were current smokers. The prevalence of hypertension was 17.8%. Among the hypertensive cases, 64.9% (61/94) were aware of their high BP, 42.6% (26/61) were treated, and 42.3% (11/26) achieved BP control (< 140/ 90 mmHg). Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated four variables significantly associated with hypertension: age > 40 years (adjusted OR = 4.20, 95% CI 1.93-9.11), married status (adjusted OR = 0.48, 95% CI 0.26-0.89), family history of hypertension (adjusted OR = 2.39, 95% CI 1.40-4.07), and BMI > 23.0 kg/m2 (adjusted OR = 3.41, 95% CI 1.80-6.45). Lifestyle modification programs are needed to prevent hypertension.     

Blutdruck in Deutschland 2008–2011

High blood pressure is one of the most important risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. It is a main determinant of morbidity and mortality in Germany. In the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults (DEGS1) the blood pressure of 7,096 adults aged 18–79 years was measured in a standardised way using oscillometric blood pressure devices (Datascope Accutorr Plus). The average of the second and third measurements was used for analysis. The mean systolic blood pressure was 120.8 mmHg in women and 127.4 mmHg in men, while the mean diastolic blood pressure was 71.2 mmHg in women and 75.3 mmHg in men. Blood pressure values were hypertensive (systolic blood pressure ≥?140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥?90 mmHg) in 12.7?% of women and in 18.1?% of men. Hypertension (defined as having hypertensive blood pressure or taking antihypertensive medication in known cases of hypertension) was present in 29.9?% of women and 33.3?% of men. Almost 75?% of the survey’s highest age group, 70–79, had hypertension. DEGS1 demonstrates that high blood pressure remains a highly prevalent risk factor in the population at large. The methodology employed in measuring blood pressure has been improved as compared to that of the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey 1998 (GNHIES98) and it will be possible to draw comparisons soon, once a procedure for calibrating the 1998 data has been finalised. An English full-text version of this article is available at SpringerLink as supplemental.     

The inter-arm blood pressure difference and peripheral vascular disease: cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND: A blood pressure (BP) difference between the upper limbs is often encountered in primary care. Knowledge of its prevalence and importance in the accurate measurement of BP is poor, representing a source of error. Current hypertension guidelines do not emphasize this. OBJECTIVES: To establish the prevalence of an inter-arm blood pressure difference (IAD) and explore its association with other indicators of peripheral vascular disease (PVD) in a hypertensive primary care population. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study. Primary care, one rural general practice, was the setting of the study. The methods were controlled simultaneous measurement of brachial BPs, ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) and tiptoe stress testing in 94 subjects. RESULTS: In all, 18 of 94 [19%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 11-27%] subjects had mean systolic inter-arm difference (sIAD) > or =10 mmHg and seven of 94 (7%, 95% CI 2-12%) had mean diastolic inter-arm difference (dIAD) > or =10 mmHg. Nineteen of 91 (20%, 95% CI 12-28%) had a reduced ABPI <0.9. There was negative correlation between systolic (Pearson's correlation coefficient - 0.378; P = 0.01) and diastolic (Pearson's correlation coefficient - 0.225; P = 0.05) magnitudes of IAD with ABPI. On tiptoe testing, 9/90 subjects (10%, 95% CI 4-16%) had a pressure drop > or =20%. CONCLUSIONS: An IAD and asymptomatic PVD are common in a primary care hypertensive population. Magnitude of the IAD is inversely correlated with ABPI, supporting the hypotheses that IADs are causally linked to PVD, and that IAD is a useful marker for the presence of PVD. Consequently, detection of an IAD should prompt the clinician to screen subjects for other signs of vascular disease and target them for aggressive cardiovascular risk factor modification.     

Isolated systolic hypertension in 14 communities

In the Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program, 158,906 individuals from 14 communities around the United States had their blood pressure measured in their homes in 1972-1973. Of the total population screened, 2.4% had isolated systolic hypertension (systolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 160 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure less than 90 mmHg). Isolated systolic hypertension was present for 0.5% of those aged 30-39 years and 6.8% among those aged 60-69 years. The prevalence in blacks and women was greater than the prevalences in both whites and men. The prevalence among those taking antihypertensive medications at the time of screening was 6.1%, and 1.9% among those not on antihypertensive medications. From the individuals with "normal" diastolic blood pressure on the single home measurement (less than 90 mmHg), a random sample of 5,032 individuals were followed for mortality for eight years. Prevalence of isolated systolic hypertension was similar in this sample to that in the total. Among those not on antihypertensive medications, 8-year life table all-cause mortality rates adjusted for age, race, and sex were 17.6% for those with systolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 160 mmHg and 7.7% for those with systolic blood pressure greater than 160 mmHg. Among this population, all of whom had a diastolic blood pressure less than 90 mmHg, a multiple logistic analysis adjusting for baseline treatment status, age, race, sex, education, smoking, weight, pulse, physical activity, and systolic blood pressure revealed that each millimeter increase in systolic blood pressure was associated with approximately a 1% increase in mortality over the eight years of follow-up (p less than 0.05). Isolated systolic hypertension is both relatively common and a significant risk factor for subsequent mortality.     

我国18岁以上居民高血压患病率的区间估计

目的估计我国18岁以上居民的高血压患病率及其95%的可信区间。方法对复杂样本加权调整,使用SUDAAN 10.0.1软件,计算我国18岁以上居民的高血压患病率,并用泰勒级数法估计其方差和95%可信区间。结果我国18岁以上居民的高血压患病率及其95%可信区间为19.14%（18.15%～20.12%）,平均收缩压及其95%可信区间为120.0 mmHg（119.4～120.6 mmHg）,平均舒张压为76.4 mmHg,95%可信区间为76.0～76.8 mmHg。结论简单随机抽样的公式不适用于复杂抽样的数据点估计和区间估计值,应该根据具体的抽样设计来估计。同时,对复杂抽样数据进行抽样权重调整可以避免结果偏倚。     

Migration, blood pressure pattern, and hypertension: the Yi Migrant Study.

Rural-urban migration provides an ideal opportunity to examine the effects of environment and genes on blood pressure. The effect of migration on the Yi people of China was studied. The Yi people live in a remote mountain area in southwestern China. In 1989, blood pressure was measured in 14,505 persons (8,241 Yi farmers, 2,575 urban Yi migrants, and 3,689 Han urban residents) aged 15-89 years. Different patterns were seen for men and women. Among the men, Yi farmers had the lowest mean blood pressure, the least rise in blood pressure with age (systolic blood pressure, 0.13 mmHg/year; diastolic blood pressure, 0.23 mmHg/year), and the lowest prevalence of hypertension (0.66%). In contrast, both Yi migrant men and Han men had higher levels of mean blood pressure, rise in blood pressure with age (Yi migrants: systolic pressure, 0.33 mmHg/year; diastolic pressure, 0.33 mmHg/year; Han: systolic pressure, 0.36 mmHg/year; diastolic pressure, 0.23 mmHg/year), and prevalence of hypertension (Yi migrants, 4.25%; Han, 4.91%). Among the women, however, mean systolic pressure was higher in Yi farmers than in Yi migrants or in Han. Diastolic pressure was similar among the three groups. However, the Yi farmer women's age-related rise in blood pressure (systolic pressure, 0.06 mmHg/year; diastolic pressure, 0.14 mmHg/year) and their prevalence of hypertension (0.33%) were lower than those in the other two groups. Yi migrant women had an intermediate rise in blood pressure with age (systolic pressure, 0.37 mmHg/year; diastolic pressure, 0.23 mmHg/year) and prevalence of hypertension (2.40%). Han women had the greatest rise in blood pressure with age (systolic pressure, 0.56 mmHg/year; diastolic pressure, 0.36 mmHg/year) and the highest prevalence of hypertension (4.76%). For both men and women, the above differences were only partially explained by age, body mass index, heart rate, smoking, and alcohol use. This study, using standardized methods, demonstrates an important effect of migration on rise in blood pressure with age and on the prevalence of hypertension.     

Exposure to famine during gestation, size at birth, and blood pressure at age 59 y: evidence from the dutch famine

We compared blood pressure of individuals (mean age 59 y) born in western Holland between January 1945 and March 1946 (mothers exposed to the Dutch Famine before or during gestation; n = 359) to blood pressure of unexposed individuals born before or conceived after the famine (n = 299) or same-sex siblings of subjects in series 1 or 2 (n = 313). Mean (SD) systolic and diastolic blood pressure were 140.3 (20.3) and 85.8 (11.0) mmHg, respectively; prevalence of hypertension (prior diagnosis of hypertension or with measured systolic/diastolic blood pressure above 140/90 mmHg) was 61.8%. Birth weight was inversely related to systolic (−4.14 mmHg per kg; 95% confidence interval (CI) −7.24, −1.03; p < 0.01) and diastolic (−2.09 mmHg per kg; 95% CI −3.77, −0.41; p < 0.05) blood pressure and to the prevalence of hypertension (odds ratio 0.67 per kg, 95% CI: 0.49, 0.93) (all age- and sex-adjusted). Any famine exposure of at least 10 weeks duration was associated with elevated systolic (2.77 mmHg; 95% CI 0.25, 5.30; p < 0.05) and diastolic (1.27 mmHg; 95% CI −0.13, 2.66; p = 0.08) blood pressure and with hypertension prevalence (odds ratio 1.44; 95% CI 1.04, 2.00; p < 0.05) in age- and sex-adjusted models. Exposure to famine during gestation may predispose to the development of hypertension in middle age.     

Prevalence of pre-hypertension and arterial hypertension and evaluation of associated factors in children and adolescents in public schools in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil

This study aimed to assess pre-hypertension and hypertension-related factors in 1,125 seven- to-14-year-old subjects enrolled in the public school system in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil. Exposure variables, namely body mass index, waist circumference, gender, age, physical activity, environmental and housing status, family income, diet, schooling, and maternal age were analyzed by polytomous logistic regression, and the outcome variable was categorized as normal, pre-hypertensive, and hypertensive. Prevalence of high blood pressure was 14.1%, including the prevalence of both hypertension (4.8%) and pre-hypertension (9.3%). An association was shown between pre-hypertension and overweight (OR: 3.13; 95%CI: 1.75-5.57). Hypertension was associated with overweight (OR: 3.02; 95%CI: 1.45-6.28), female gender (OR: 2.49; 95%CI: 1.24-4.98), and high-risk eating patterns (OR: 1.93; 95%CI: 1.04-3.56). In short, prevalence of pre-hypertension and hypertension in children and adolescents was higher among girls and individuals with overweight and inadequate diet.     

Oral contraceptives: a risk factor for uncontrolled blood pressure among hypertensive women

The objective of the study was to assess the association between systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and the use of oral contraceptives (OC) in hypertensive women. In a prospective cross-sectional study, we evaluated 171 women who were referred to the Hypertension Outpatient Clinic of Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre; 66 current users of OC, 26 users of other contraceptive methods and 79 women who were not using contraception. The average of six blood pressure readings was used to establish the usual blood pressure of the participants. Current OC users were compared with users of other methods and with patients not using contraception. Main outcome measures were SBP and DBP among the different groups, and prevalence of uncontrolled hypertension (SBP >or= 140 mmHg and DBP >or= 90 mmHg). DBP was higher in OC users (100.2 +/- 15.9 mmHg) than in patients using other contraceptive methods (93.4 +/- 14.7 mmHg) and not using contraceptives (93.3 +/- 14.4 mmHg, p = 0.016). Women using OC for more than 8 years presented higher age-adjusted blood pressure levels than women using OC for shorter periods. Patients using OC had poor blood pressure control (p for trend = 0.046) and a higher proportion of them presented moderate-severe hypertension. These results were independent of antihypertensive drug use. In a logistic regression model, we found that current OC use was independently and significantly associated with prevalence of uncontrolled hypertension. It is concluded that hypertensive women using OC present a significant increase in DBP and poor blood pressure control, independent of age, weight and antihypertensive drug treatment.