Relapse and recurrent tuberculosis in the context of a national tuberculosis control programme

The proportion of patients with recurrent tuberculosis (TB) is reported to be increased in TB patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection after they have completed treatment. Despite rising HIV seroprevalence amongst TB patients in Malawi, notifications of patients with relapse smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB) and recurrent smear-negative TB have remained stable during the past 12 years. We suspected that patients with recurrent or relapse TB were being missed under routine programme conditions. Forty-three hospitals in Malawi were visited in 1999, and TB inpatients who had been registered as 'new' cases in the TB register and treatment card were interviewed about previous episodes of TB. A previous history of TB was elicited in 94 (7.5%) of 1254 patients who were being treated as new cases. Compared with patients with smear-positive PTB, a previous episode of TB was significantly more common in patients with smear-negative PTB (OR 3.5, [95% CI 2.1-5.7], P < 0.001) and patients with extrapulmonary TB (OR 2.0, [95% CI 1.1-3.7], P < 0.05). Of 94 patients with a previous episode of TB, 76 had completed treatment and 18 had defaulted from treatment during this episode. Patients with recurrent or relapse TB are being incorrectly registered within the Malawi TB Control Programme, and in the case of smear-positive PTB patients this is associated with administration of incorrect treatment. Measures have been put in place to rectify the situation, and further operational research is planned to monitor treatment outcomes of patients with recurrent smear-negative TB.     

Treatment outcome of patients with smear-negative and smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis in the National Tuberculosis Control Programme, Malawi

National tuberculosis control programmes (NTPs) in sub-Saharan Africa do not routinely record or report treatment outcome data on smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients. Twelve-month treatment outcome on patients with smear-negative PTB registered in all district and mission hospitals in Malawi during the year 1995 was collected, and was compared with 8-month treatment outcome in smear-positive PTB patients registered during the same period. Of 4240 patients with smear-negative PTB, 35% completed treatment, 25% died, 9% defaulted and 7% were transferred to another district with no treatment outcome results available. In 24% of patients treatment cards were lost and treatment outcome was unknown. These results were significantly inferior to those obtained in 4003 patients with smear-positive PTB in whom 72% completed treatment, 20% died, 4% defaulted, 2% were transferred and 1% had positive smears at the end of treatment. These differences between patients with smear-negative and smear-positive PTB were similar when analysed by sex and by most age-groups. Higher mortality rates in patients with smear-negative PTB are probably attributable to advanced HIV-related immunosuppression, and higher default and treatment unknown rates probably reflect the lack of attention paid by TB programme staff to this group of patients. As a result of this country-wide study the Malawi NTP has started to record routinely the treatment outcomes of smear-negative TB patients and has set treatment completion targets of 50% or higher for this group of patients.     

Tuberculosis in health care workers in Malawi.

Although sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rates of tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the world, the rates of TB amongst its health care workers (HCWs) are poorly documented. We therefore conducted a country-wide investigation. All district/government and mission hospitals in Malawi that diagnose and care for TB patients were visited in order to obtain information on hospital-based HCWs and their incidence of TB in 1996. Hospital TB case loads, country-wide TB notification numbers and national population estimates for 1996 were obtained, which enabled TB case notification rates to be calculated. In 1996, 108 (3.6%) of 3042 HCWs from 40 hospitals were registered and treated for TB: 22 with smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 40 with smear-negative PTB and 46 with extrapulmonary TB. The overall case fatality rate was 24%. Compared with the adult general population aged > or = 15 years, the relative risk [95% confidence interval (CI)] in HCWs of all types of TB was 11.9 [9.8-14.4], of smear-positive PTB 5.9 [3.9-9.0], of smear-negative PTB 13.0 [9.5-17.7] and of extrapulmonary TB 18.4 [13.8-24.6], P < 0.05. The 1996 hospital TB case load ranged from 29 to 915: there were no cases of TB in HCWs in hospitals whose case load was < or = 100 patients, while the TB case rate among HCWs was similar in hospitals with annual case loads of 101-300 or > 300. The annual risk of TB was high among all categories of HCW, especially clinical officers. This study shows a high rate of TB in HCWs in Malawi, and emphasizes the need for practical and affordable control measures for the protection of HCWs from TB in low-income countries.     

Are official reports sufficient? Official registration rates of patients with tuberculosis in Sivas, Middle Anatolia

PURPOSE: The main goal of this retrospective study was to re-evaluate all available records of clinical and laboratory data of patients with tuberculosis (TB) in Sivas province, Middle Anatolia, Turkey. METHODS: TB registration data held at health institutions in Sivas province were compared and matched with data obtained from the local official TB registries from January 2000 to December 2001. RESULTS: Of the 536 TB cases found in 2000 and 2001, 255 (47.6%) were officially registered. Of the 127 cases with smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), only nine cases labelled as smear-positive were registered in local dispensaries. The incidence of unregistered cases with smear-positive PTB found by this study was approximately 40-fold and eightfold greater than the incidence of registered cases for 2000 and 2001, respectively. CONCLUSION: There were many more unofficially recorded TB patients compared with officially recorded cases in Sivas province between 2000 and 2001. The results of this study are disappointing and alarming for Turkey's national TB control programme, at least for its regional applications.     

Comprehensiveness of primary services in the care of infectious tuberculosis patients in Rawalpindi,Pakistan

Setting:

All tuberculosis (TB) diagnostic centres of Rawalpindi District, Pakistan, including five tertiary care hospitals and 16 rural health centres.

Objective:

To identify among sputum smear-positive patients registered during 2009 in the laboratory register those who had not been recorded in a treatment register, defined in the study as ‘initial loss to follow-up’.

Design:

A retrospective record review of routine TB data.

Results:

There were 16 145 suspects screened for TB and recorded in the laboratory registers. Of 1698 smear-positive patients identified in the laboratory registers, 101 (6%) could not be identified in the treatment registers. Eighty-six (10%) of 842 patients in tertiary care hospitals and 15/856 (2%) in rural health centres were not recorded (OR 6.4, 95%CI 3.6–11.6, P < 0.01).

Conclusion:

The study shows a significant association between type of health facility and initial loss to follow-up. In rural health centres, the proportion lost to follow-up is low, reflecting more efficient care than in tertiary care hospitals. Strategies are urgently needed to improve the registration and follow-up of smear-positive cases in tertiary care institutions.     

云南省结核病防治规划（2002-2010年）实施效果评价

目的分析评价云南省结核病防治规划（2002-2010年）实施效果,为该省结核病防治工作可持续发展提供可参考的建议。方法以《全国结核病防治规划（2001-2010年）终期评估实施方案》为依据,收集该省规划终期评估资料并进行分析评价。结果（1）活动性肺结核报告发病率从2005年的73．12／10万逐年开始平缓下降,到2010年降至55．6／10万,平均每年降幅为3．99％,患病年龄出现向后推移的趋势;（2）提高患者发现力度,2002-2010年全省共发现活动性肺结核患者171504例,其中涂阳肺结核患者104566例;（3）获得患者高治愈率,2002-2010年登记的涂阳肺结核治愈率为92．91％;（4）取得显著的社会和经济效益,9年间全省共减少了肺结核患者死亡41729人,避免了新发患者数76303人,共减少医疗费用支出约5198万元,挽回了约71．97亿元的社会经济价值。结论云南省结核病防治规划取得显著成效,但要保持现有的成果,确保云南省结核病防治工作的可持续发展和“十二五规划”的顺利实施,任务仍十分艰巨。     

Preventing tuberculosis among health workers in Malawi

OBJECTIVE: Following the introduction of guidelines for the control of tuberculosis (TB) infection in all hospitals in Malawi, a study was carried out to determine whether the guidelines were being implemented, the time between admission to hospital and the diagnosis of pulmonary TB had been reduced, and the annual case notification rates among health workers had fallen and were comparable to those of primary-school teachers. METHODS: The study involved 40 district and mission hospitals. Staff and patients were interviewed in order to determine whether the guidelines had been adopted. In four hospitals the diagnostic process in patients with smear-positive pulmonary TB was evaluated before and after the introduction of the guidelines, with the aid of case notes and TB registers. In all hospitals the proportion of health workers registered with TB before and after the guidelines were introduced, in 1996 and 1999, respectively, was determined by conducting interviews and consulting staff lists and TB registers. A similar method was used to determine the proportion of primary-school teachers who were registered with TB in 1999. FINDINGS: The guidelines were not uniformly implemented. Only one hospital introduced voluntary counselling and testing for its staff. Most hospitals stated that they used rapid systems to diagnose pulmonary TB. However, there was no significant change in the interval between admission and diagnosis or between admission and treatment of patients with smear-positive pulmonary TB. The TB case notification rate for 2979 health workers in 1999 was 3.2%; this did not differ significantly from the value of 3.7% for 2697 health workers in 1996 but was significantly higher than that of 1.8% for 4367 primary-school teachers in 1999. CONCLUSION: The introduction of guidelines for the control of TB infection is an important intervention for reducing nosocomial transmission of the disease, but rigorous monitoring and follow-up are needed in order to ensure that they are implemented.     

Resources for controlling tuberculosis in Malawi

OBJECTIVE: To document resources for controlling tuberculosis (TB) in Malawi. METHODS: We performed a countrywide study of all 43 hospitals (3 central, 22 district and 18 mission) which register and treat patients with TB. To collect data for 1998 on the TB-related workload, diagnostic facilities, programme staff and treatment facilities, we used laboratory, radiographic and TB registers, conducted interviews and visited hospital facilities. FINDINGS: The data show that in 1998, 88,257 TB suspects/patients contributed approximately 230,000 sputum specimens for smear microscopy, 55,667 chest X-rays were performed and 23,285 patients were registered for TB treatment. There were 86 trained laboratory personnel, 44 radiographers and 83 TB programme staff. Of these, about 40% had periods of illness during 1998. Approximately 20% of the microscopes and X-ray machines were broken. Some 16% of the hospital beds were designated for TB patients in special wards, but even so, the occupancy of beds in TB wards exceeded 100%. Although stocks of anti-TB drugs were good, there was a shortage of full-time TB ward nurses and 50% of district hospitals conducted no TB ward rounds. In general, there was a shortage of facilities for managing associated HIV-related disease; central hospitals, in particular, were underresourced. CONCLUSION: Malawi needs better planning to utilize its manpower and should consider cross-training hospital personnel. The equipment needs regular maintenance, and more attention should be paid to HIV-related illness. The policies of decentralizing resources to the periphery and increasing diagnostic and case-holding resources for central hospitals should be continued.     

High mortality rates in tuberculosis patients in Zomba Hospital, Malawi, during 32 months of follow-up

There is little information about long-term follow-up in patients with smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) or extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) who have been treated under routine programme conditions in sub-Saharan Africa. A prospective study was carried out to determine outcome 32 months from start of treatment in an unselected cohort of 827 adults TB inpatients registered at Zomba Hospital, Malawi, in 1 July-31 December 1995. By 32 months, 351 (42%) patients had died. Death rates were 30% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 25-35%) in 386 patients with smear-positive PTB, 60% (95% CI 53-67%) in 211 patients with smear-negative PTB and 47% (95% CI 40-54%) in 230 patients with EPTB. Of the 793 patients with concordant HIV test results 612 (77%) were HIV seropositive: 47% HIV-positive patients were dead by 32 months compared with 27% HIV-negative patients (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 2.3; 95% CI 1.7-3.1, P < 0.001). Smear-negative PTB patients had the highest death rates during the 32-month follow-up (HR 2.7; 95% CI 2.1-3.5, P < 0.001 compared to smear-positive patients), followed by EPTB patients (HR 1.9; 95% CI 1.5-2.5, P < 0.001 compared to smear-positive patients). When analysis was restricted to after the treatment period had finished (i.e., months 12-32), the differences in mortality were maintained for HIV-serostatus and for types of TB. Low-cost, easy to implement strategies for reducing mortality in HIV-positive TB patients in sub-Saharan Africa (such as the use of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis) need to be tested urgently in programme settings.     

Characteristics and outcomes of tuberculosis patients who fail to smear convert at two months in Sri Lanka

Setting:

Five districts in Sri Lanka.

Objectives:

To determine: 1) the proportion of sputum smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) cases who failed to smear convert at 2 months, 2) their management, and 3) whether baseline characteristics and final treatment outcomes were different from those who did smear convert.

Design:

Cross-sectional retrospective review of medical files, tuberculosis (TB) registers and TB treatment records of new smear-positive PTB patients registered from January to December 2010.

Results:

Of 925 patients, 840 were available to submit sputum at 2 months, of whom 137 (16%) were smear-positive. Baseline sputum smears showing 3+ acid-fast bacilli and missing doses of anti-tuberculosis drugs during the initial phase of treatment were significantly associated with being smear-positive at 2 months. Management was poor: of 137 patients, 46 (34%) submitted sputum for culture and drug susceptibility testing and Mycobacterium tuberculosis was cultured in six cases; 120 (88%) received a 1-month extension of the initial phase, and of the 30 patients still smear-positive at 3 months there were no culture results available. Final treatment outcomes were similar, regardless of smear conversion at 2 or 3 months.

Conclusion:

Certain characteristics were risk factors for failure to smear convert at 2 months. However, treatment outcomes for all patients were good. These findings have implications for the modification of national programme recommendations.     

2001-2009年正阳县肺结核病人发现与治疗转归分析

[目的]了解正阳县肺结核病例登记及治疗管理情况,为实施《结核病防治规划（2001~2010）》可持续发展提供技术依据。[方法]根据正阳县2001-2009年结核病登记本对登记的涂阳病例进行治疗转归队列分析。[结果]正阳县2001~2009年共登记治疗管理肺结核患者5234例,其中涂阳肺结核病人所占比例从2001年的33．73％提高到2009年的47．12％,涂阳新登记率从2001年的11．48／10万提高到2009年的36．52／10万,涂阳病人平均治愈率从2001年的78．57％提高到2009年的94．41％,其中,初治涂阳治愈率91．34％,复治涂阳治愈率78．57％。[结论]正阳县实施现代结核病控制策略（DOTS策略）取得了预期的成效,实现了《规划》的中期目标和结核病控制阶段性目标.     

Differences in tuberculosis incidence rates in township and in rural populations in Ntcheu District, Malawi

There has been a large upsurge of tuberculosis (TB) in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly as a result of the co-existing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic. Malawi has had a well-run National TB Control Programme (NTP) with good registration and recording of cases. For some years the NTP has had the impression that TB in the country is concentrated around townships and is less prevalent in the rural areas. This impression was investigated in a rural district (Ntcheu District) in Malawi. Data on new TB cases were collected from the district TB register for the years 1992-96 and average annual TB incidence rates per 100,000 for semi-urban and rural populations were calculated for this period. There was a significantly higher incidence of TB, particularly amongst cases with smear-negative pulmonary TB and extrapulmonary TB, in the semi-urban population compared with the rural population. Possible explanations could be higher HIV seroprevalence rates in semi-urban areas compared with rural areas, under-diagnosis at health centres or poor access to medical facilities for rural people.     

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients being registered for smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi

The National TB Control Programme of Malawi registers and treats large numbers of patients with chronic cough for smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). Smear-negative PTB is diagnosed according to clinical and radiographic criteria, as mycobacterial cultures are not routinely available. In an area of high HIV seroprevalence there is a concern that other opportunistic infections apart from TB, such as Pneumocystis carinii, may be missed owing to lack of diagnostic facilities. The aims of this study were to investigate (i) the extent of P. carinii pneumonia (PCP) in patients about to be registered for smear-negative PTB; (ii) whether there were any clinical or radiological features that could help identify PCP in the absence of more detailed investigations; and (iii) the treatment outcome of PCP patients. A cohort of 352 patients who were about to be started on treatment for smear-negative PTB were investigated further in 1997-99 by clinical assessment, HIV testing and bronchoscopy. HIV sero-prevalence was 89% (278/313). A total of 186 patients underwent bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage, and PCP was diagnosed by indirect immunofluorescence or polymerase chain reaction in 17 (9%) of this subgroup. Dyspnoea was significantly more common in PCP cases compared to non-PCP cases (RR 1.35; 95% CI 1.24-1.48; P = 0.008), but discrimination between the groups was difficult using clinical criteria alone. The outcome of PCP cases was poor despite management with high-dose co-trimoxazole and secondary co-trimoxazole prophylaxis, with a median survival of 4 months (25-75% range: 2-12 months).     

TB control programme in India

The National Tuberculosis Control Program (NTP) in India has used effective ambulatory treatment since 1962, employing multidrug therapy consisting of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol. The NTP organization consists of 390 district TB centers in charge of case detection through clinical examination, sputum and X-ray examinations, case management, as well as monitoring, reporting, and supervision. 330 clinics also belong to NTP in the urban areas, providing 47,300 beds for serious TB cases. The number of new TB cases has increased from 1.13/1000 population in 1981 to 1.80/1000 in 1991. Therefore, the NTP strategy has been revised to achieve a high cure rate (85%) and treat at least 100 sputum-positive patients per 100,000 population, thereby reducing morbidity and mortality. The estimated annual risk of infection ranges from 0.6% to 2.3%, while in rural South India the risk of infection decreased from 1% in 1961 to 0.61% in 1985. The poorly functioning control program has resulted in a large number of chronic cases and drug resistance to both rifampicin and isoniazid, with the potential of development of an incurable form of TB. At least 50% of the population above the age of 20 is infected, and the current risk of infection for India is 1.7-2%. The proportion of smear-positive cases decreased from 25% in 1980 to about 20% in the late 1980s; however, failures and partially treated patients are included in these reported figures. At the current average annual risk of infection of 1.7%, 1.6 million new TB cases occur every year, of which 710,000 are smear-positive. About 75% of cases diagnosed occur between 15 and 44 years of age, with two-thirds of them occurring among males; however, 50% of female cases occur before the age of 34 years. TB mortality is estimated at 420,000 deaths per year (i.e., 50/100,000 population). HIV seropositivity is high among TB patients: at the end of 1993 there were 331 (60%) patients with active TB among 559 AIDS cases. Operations research of the NTP is underway to improve efficiency.     

Epidemiology of Tuberculosis in the Southeastern Iran

In order to study the epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) in Zabol, situated in the Southeast of Iran, this study was performed. Two thousand seven hundred and twenty-nine cases of tuberculosis disease were identified during 1998–2002. The notification rate was 135/100,000 population in 2002, which was higher than this rate in previous years. The notification rate of TB in Afghan population was significantly higher than Iranian population (202 cases/100,000 in Afghan and 122 cases/100,000 in Iranian population. The case notifications in 1998–2001 were 134, 131, 130, and 130 in 100,000 populations, respectively. The prevalence of smear-positive cases was 76/100,000 population in 2002 and the ratio of smear-positive cases to smear-negative and extrapulmonary cases was 1.46. This region remains high TB rates. It is necessary to pay attention to the detection of TB, by making their register in order to enhance the effectiveness and to reduce the cost of existing methods.     

某县痰涂片阴性肺结核病人高登记率原因分析

目的　探讨某县痰涂片阴性肺结核病人高登记率的原因。方法　收集该县 1997年 - 2 0 0 1年县结防所常规报表 ,计算 5年登记的初治肺结核病人的痰涂片阴性的比例 ;随机抽取该县 4个乡镇 ,对这 4个乡镇卫生院的结防科医生进行深入访谈 ,了解结核病人诊断方式及其痰检情况。结果　该县诊断的许多肺结核病人没有痰检 ,报表中登记的肺结核病人痰涂片阴性比例很高。结论　加强医务人员业务培训 ,对所有可疑肺结核病人进行痰检 ,提高痰检质量 ;给经济困难的可疑病人提供免费诊治 ;大力发动健康教育 ,提高医务人员和广大群众对痰涂片重要性等结核病知识的了解 ;实施归口管理 ,由结防所对可疑结核病人进行统一检查、确诊 ;提高登记肺结核病人痰涂片阳性检出率。     

湖南省株洲县1994-2009年结核病控制项目效果分析评价

目的对株洲县1994-2009年实施结核病控制项目效果进行分析评价,为该县结核病控制工作可持续发展提供科学依据。方法对该县1994-2009年登记管理的病人,以病人登记本、月报、季报和年报为资料来源,进行患病率、流行特征、DOTS策略执行情况的分析及社会效益和成本效益的评价研究。结果 1994-2009年登记患病率为72.69/10万,涂阳患病率为45.09/10万,其中新涂阳患病率为36.23/10万,治愈率为93.51%,复治涂阳病人治愈率为88.55%,避免了约60 000人感染结核杆菌和3 000人发生结核病,项目期间产生的直接效益是投入病人发现治疗成本的15倍。结论结核病控制项目的实施,促进了结核病控制规划目标的实现,达到了结核病人高发现率和高治愈率目标,取得了显著的社会效益和经济效益,为结核病控制工作的可持续发展提供了科学依据。     

Low prevalence of diabetes mellitus in patients with tuberculosis in Cotonou,Benin

Setting: The three Basic Management Units (BMUs) of the National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) in Cotonou, Benin.Objective: To determine the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) among tuberculosis (TB) patients in Cotonou.Design: A cross-sectional study of consecutively registered TB patients treated for a minimum of 2 weeks between June and July 2014 in the three BMUs, with measurement of their fasting blood glucose (FBG). A patient was considered as having DM if venous FBG was ⩾7 mmol/l or if they reported a known history of DM.Result: There were 159 patients assessed: 114 with new smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), 5 with new smear-negative PTB, 8 with extra-pulmonary TB, 21 retreatment patients with fully susceptible bacilli and 11 with multidrug-resistant TB. Of these, respectively 31 (19%), 18 (11%) and 10 (6%) were human immunodeficiency virus co-infected, smokers and hypertensive. Eight patients (5%) had impaired fasting glucose and three (1.9%) had DM (FBG ⩾ 7 mmol/l), of whom two were already known to have the disease and one was newly diagnosed.Conclusion: DM may not be an important risk factor for TB in Cotonou. A larger study on TB and DM in the whole country is needed.     

High time to use rapid tests to detect multidrug resistance in sputum smear-negative tuberculosis in Belarus

Setting: Belarus (Eastern Europe) is facing an epidemic of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). In 2012, rapid molecular diagnostics were prioritised for sputum smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients to diagnose MDR-TB, while pulmonary sputum smear-negative pulmonary TB (SN-PTB) patients were investigated using conventional methods, often delaying the diagnosis of MDR-TB by 2–4 months.Objective: To determine the proportion of MDR-TB among SN-PTB patients registered in 2012 and associated clinical and demographic factors.Design: Retrospective cohort study using countrywide data from the national electronic TB register.Results: Of the 5377 TB cases registered, 2960 (55%) were SN-PTB. Of the latter, 1639 (55%) were culture-positive, of whom 768 (47%) had MDR-TB: 33% (363/1084) were new and 73% (405/555) previously treated patients. Previous history of treatment, age, region, urban residence, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status and being a pensioner were independently associated with MDR-TB.Conclusion: About half of culture-positive SN-PTB patients have MDR-TB and this rises to over 7/10 for retreatment cases. A national policy decision to extend rapid molecular diagnostics universally to all PTB patients, including SN-PTB, seems justified. Steps need to be taken to ensure implementation of this urgent priority, given the patient and public health implications of delayed diagnosis.