Visceral pain

Pain is one of the most common symptoms that patient presents with. Visceral organs were thought to be insensitive to pain in the past, but we now know this is not true. It is more common than somatic pain and originates from the internal organs in the thorax, abdomen or pelvis. These organs are innervated by the parasympathetic (vagus and sacral parasympathetic fibres) and sympathetic (thoracolumbar sympathetic chain: T1–L2) nervous systems. The afferent and efferent fibres to the organs accompany the sympathetic nervous system. The sensory system to the gut is specialized and divided into an enteric and extrinsic nervous system. The physiology of visceral pain is poorly understood compared to somatic pain, but it is well established that peripheral and central sensitization along with dysregulation of the descending pathways plays a significant role. Pain originating from visceral organs is usually diffuse, dull aching, poorly localized and can be associated with phenomenon such as referred somatic pain, referred hyperalgesia, visceral hyperalgesia and viscero-visceral hyperalgesia. Treatment of visceral pain involves identifying and treating the cause, if identified, and the management of pain. Patient education and information plays an important part in management along with pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments.     

Visceral pain

Visceral pain originates from the internal organs in the thorax, abdomen or pelvis. It represents a major clinical problem and is more common than somatic pain. The internal viscera are innervated by the parasympathetic (craniosacral) and sympathetic (thoracolumbar) nervous systems. The physiology of visceral pain is poorly understood compared to somatic pain; however, it is well established that peripheral and central sensitization and dysregulation of the descending pathways contribute significantly. Pain originating from visceral organs is usually diffuse, dull, poorly localized and can be associated with phenomena such as referred pain, referred hyperalgesia, visceral hyperalgesia and viscero-visceral hyperalgesia. Treatment of visceral pain involves identifying and treating the underlying cause, if identifiable, and symptomatic pain management. Patient education and information play an important role in management in combination with pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies.     

Visceral leishmaniasis in renal transplant recipients: clinical aspects, diagnostic problems, and response to treatment

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a parasitic infection that uncommonly affects renal transplantation recipients, even in endemic areas. It may be associated with other infections, or masked by these, and may present subclinically and/or atypically for extended periods. The evolution may be particularly severe and diagnosis is often delayed. If not adequately diagnosed and treated, VL can be fatal and so should be suspected in renal transplantation recipients presenting unexplained fever, splenomegaly, and pancytopenia. The authors report 8 cases of VL out of a total of 800 renal transplant recipients from two transplant hospitals centers in Brazil. The clinical, diagnostic, and therapeutic features are reviewed.     

Visceral artery aneurysms

Visceral artery aneurysms (VAAs) are a rare condition, in case of a rupture they have a high mortality rate up to 70%. Visceral artery aneurysms are seen more often these days with the more widespread use of computed tomography and angiography. There are various options for treating VAAs; open surgical repair, endovascular treatment, and laparoscopic surgery. We report 5 cases of visceral aneurysms, all treated differently--ligation, aneurysmectomy (with splenectomy), emergency and elective coil embolization, and conservatively. We will further give a review of the literature on etiology, diagnosis, and treatment options.     

Visceral Artery Aneurysms

Visceral artery aneurysms (VAA) frequently present as life-threatening emergencies. The purpose of this study was to review our experience with VAA treatment. Between 1988 and April 2002, 31 VAA were treated in 28 patients (14 males, 14 females) with average age of 55±15 years. The most common locations were the splenic artery (16) and the hepatic artery (7). Three patients underwent emergency surgery, 22 patients had elective open surgery, and 7 patients underwent endovascular treatment. In the surgical group the perioperative mortality rate was 3.6%. The perioperative morbidity rate was 7.1% (one case of respiratory distress manifested in the immediate postoperative period and one urgent case of bilious fistula). In the endovascular group none of the patients died; the perioperative morbidity rate was of 14.3% (one case of hepatic artery thrombosis after failure of gastroduodenal artery aneurysm embolization). Failure of the procedure was 42.9% (3 cases of aneurysm recanalization). In conclusion, we believe that an aggressive surgical approach is justified, even in the case of asymptomatic VAA, because of the low morbidity and mortality rates. Endovascular treatment should be reserved for selected cases.     

Visceral artery aneurysms

The purpose of this article is to review the etiology, clinical presentation and treatment options of visceral artery aneurysms (VAA) on the basis of our experiences. Visceral artery aneurysms are uncommon lesions with a frequency of 0,1-0,2 % in autopsy statistics. In fact many visceral artery aneurysms still present first with a rupture (22 %) and despite emergency laparotomies the mortality rate is about 8,5 %. The course of disease often is disastrous due to rupture of the aneurysms or thromboembolic complications, emphasizing the importance to be aware of this differential diagnosis of abdominal pain. This article covers 9 patients with VAA. 3 patients each revealed an a. lienalis aneurysm and a. gastrica aneurysm, resp. In the other 3 patients an aneurysm of the a. gastroepiploica, the a. pancreatico-duodenalis and the a. mesenterica superior resp. was proven. In 8 of 9 patients a surgical therapy of the VAA took place. Only 2 patients (22 %) were interventionally treated. 1 patient deceased due to postoperative hemorrhage. Both the surgical and the radiological intervention therapy are available for treatment of the VAA. The decision on the choice of the therapeutic procedure should be made on an individual basis.     

Visceral vascular injuries

This article deals with injuries to the celiac trunk, superior and inferior mesenteric arterial injuires. Surgical approaches and physiological implications of interruption of the mesenteric arterial circulation are addressed in detail. Surgical techniques for the management of these injuries and the need for second look operations are also examined.     

Visceral injuries.

Abdominal visceral injuries are encountered by every surgeon who deals with trauma. It is simple and useful to divide abdominal visceral injuries into those caused by penetrating mechanisms of injury and those due to blunt mechanisms. Determination of the need for operative intervention is generally easier after penetrating trauma. Gunshot wounds to the abdomen should be explored, as should stab wounds to the anterior abdomen that penetrate the fascia. A midline incision is the standard approach to abdominal visceral injuries because of its ease and versatility. Abdominal exploration should be consistent and systemic so as not to miss significant injuries. Hollow viscus injury is most common after penetrating injury, while blunt injury most often results in injury to solid viscera. Diagnostic and operative aspects of the treatment of specific visceral injuries are reviewed.     

Visceral artery aneurysms

Visceral artery aneurysms (VAA) are relatively rare disease patterns. With regard to the aetiology two different entities of VAA can be distinguished: (i) real VAA, where arteriosclerosis plays an important role, particular in elderly patients, and (ii) pseudo-aneurysms. Here, previous abdominal trauma or former inflammatory processes are considered to be the responsible factors for their occurrence. Most frequently, VAA are located in the splenic (60%) and common hepatic artery (20-50%). The common hepatic artery (80%) and the pancreatico-duodenal artery (75%) feature the highest rupture rates. Generally all VAA with a diameter exceeding 2 cm should be treated. Special attention has to be paid to young pregnant women (particularly multipara) who bear the highest risk of VAA rupture, especially during the third trimenon. Early therapy is essential to avoid fatal consequences for mother and foetus. Basically, interventional, endovascular (embolisation, stent) or surgical (resection with direct vessel anastomosis, graft interposition, aneurysmorraphy, ligature) therapy options exist. The choice of the intervention should be adapted to the patient's individual risk profile. In our own series of VAA (n=19; 1996-2007), we evaluated both interventional and surgical procedures as valid therapy regimens with regard to the patients clinical condition.     

Visceral artery aneurysm rupture

PURPOSE: Aneurysms of the visceral arteries are infrequently encountered. Many are found incidentally and are thought to have a benign outcome. To better characterize these lesions and their clinical course, we reviewed our experience with visceral artery aneurysms (VAAs) at a single institution. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of all VAAs diagnosed at our institution over the past 10 years was performed. The presentation, management, and outcome of therapy was examined for each patient. RESULTS: Thirty-four VAAs in 26 patients were diagnosed over the past 10 years. Four patients had multiple VAAs: splenic (17), hepatic (7), celiac (3), superior mesenteric (2), gastroduodenal (2), pancreaticoduodenal (1), right gastric (1), ileal (1) artery aneurysms. Associated aneurysms were found in 31% of patients and involved the thoracic aorta (3 patients), abdominal aorta (4 patients), renal arteries (2 patients), iliac artery (3 patients), lower extremity (1 patient), and intracranium (1 patient). In 15 patients (58%), VAAs were detected before rupture by chance or because abdominal symptoms resulted in diagnostic evaluation. Eight of these underwent elective surgery, and there were no deaths. Of those 15 patients with known VAAs, one patient died of rupture and hemorrhage from an untreated splenic artery aneurysm. Eleven patients (42%) presented unexpectedly with rupture, and two died despite prompt surgical treatment. The mortality rate in patients who had ruptured VAAs was 25%, including those who presented with ruptured aneurysms and those observed whose aneurysms eventually ruptured. CONCLUSIONS: Aneurysms of the visceral arteries are rare but important vascular lesions. Associated aneurysms are common. Because of the risk of rupture, often with a fatal outcome, an aggressive approach to the treatment of VAA is essential.     

Visceral volvulae and management

Volvulus refers to torsion of a segment of the gastrointestinal tract, which often leads to bowel obstruction. Obstruction of the intestinal lumen and impairment of vascular perfusion occur when the degree of torsion exceeds 180 and 360 degrees, respectively. Visceral volvulus causing obstruction is a common presentation to the emergency department. Ascertaining the gastrointestinal level and grading the severity of the obstruction is paramount as each can be managed entirely differently. A spectrum from nasogastric or rectal tube decompression, to endoscopic decompression with or without fixation, and finally, surgical intervention are all at the surgeons disposal. Clinical and radiographic assessment of both the pathological process and the patient provide all the necessary detail for appropriate management of what is often a highly comorbid cohort of patients. This article will summarize current evidence for management of the most common sources of volvulus; gastric, small bowel, and colonic.     

Visceral volvulae and management

Volvulus refers to torsion of a segment of the gastrointestinal tract, which often leads to bowel obstruction. Obstruction of the intestinal lumen and impairment of vascular perfusion occur when the degree of torsion exceeds 180 and 360 degrees, respectively. Visceral volvulus causing obstruction is a common presentation to the emergency department. Ascertaining the gastrointestinal level and grading the severity of the obstruction is paramount as each can be managed entirely differently. A spectrum from nasogastric or rectal tube decompression, to endoscopic decompression with or without fixation, and finally, surgical intervention are all at the surgeons disposal. Clinical and radiographic assessment of both the pathological process and the patient provide all the necessary detail for appropriate management of what are often a highly comorbid cohort of patients. This article will summarize current evidence for management of the most common sources of volvulus; gastric, small bowel, and colonic.