Chronic tics and Tourette syndrome in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder

Tourette syndrome (TS) and chronic motor/vocal tics (CMVT) are both common disorders in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). However, there have been few studies evaluating the differences between the OCD with TS and OCD with CMVT subgroups. This study was conducted in order to further investigate possible differences between the expression of the OCD phenotype in OCD with TS and that seen in OCD with CMVT. One hundred and fifty-nine outpatients referred to an OCD research program were evaluated using the following instruments: the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale; the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale; and the USP-HARVARD Repetitive Behaviors Interview. Patients were divided into three groups: OCD patients without tics (OCD − TICS, n = 98), OCD patients with chronic motor or vocal tics (OCD + CMVT, n = 31) and OCD patients with TS (OCD + TS, n = 30). OCD + CMVT patients were similar to OCD + TS patients regarding the frequency of intrusive sounds, repeating behaviors, counting and tic-like compulsions (in both cases more frequent than in OCD − TICS patients). For age at obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptom onset, sensory phenomena score, number of comorbidities, frequency of somatic obsessions, bodily sensations and just-right perceptions, OCD + CMVT patients tended to be in between the other two groups. Our results suggest that there are qualitative and quantitative differences in the phenotypic expression of tic disorders in OCD patients, depending on whether the subject has TS or only CMVT.     

难治性抽动秽语综合征伴强迫症的立体定向手术治疗

目的 总结立体定向手术毁损一侧丘脑腹外侧核(VL)/板中间核(LM)联合未定带(ZI)和双侧扣带回前部(ACG)毁损治疗抽动秽语综合征(GTS)伴强迫症的经验.方法 术前录像记录患者平静下抽动情况.手术采用磁共振引导下立体定向射频毁损方式,一侧ZI+VL/LM毁损控制抽动症状,双侧AC毁损控制强迫症状.抽动严重程度以耶鲁大体抽动量表(YGTSS)评价,强迫行严重程度以耶鲁布朗强迫症量表(YBOCS)评价.结果 23例患者接受一侧ZI+VL/LM联合双侧ACG毁损术,其中左侧ZI+VL/LM毁损14例,右侧ZI+VL/LM 9例.术后患者肢体抽动较术前明显改善,其YGTSS评分由术前(20.3±7.2)分明显下降至术后(9.8±3.2)分(P<0.05);术后患者不自主发声显著缓解,其YGTSS评分由术前(19.6±8.8)分明显下降至术后(10.2±3.1)分(P<0.05);术后患者总体病情、生活质量显著提高,其YGTSS评分由术前(70.3±17.2)分明显下降至术后(30.8±10.9)分(P<0.05).另外,术后强迫症也明显缓解,其YBOCS评分由术前(37.2±3.9)分明显下降至术后(17.2±3.2)分(P<0.05).23例患者均未出现严重并发症.结论 一侧VL/LM联合ZI区和双侧ACG毁损术可有效地控制GTS,对GTS伴发的强迫症也有良好的疗效.     

Differential perinatal risk factors in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder by subtype

We compared the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) combined subtype (ADHD-C) to the ADHD inattentive subtype (ADHD-I) in terms of genetic, perinatal, and developmental risk factors as well as clinical and neuropsychological characteristics. A total of 147 children diagnosed with ADHD between the ages of 6 and 15 years participated in this study. The parents of the children completed the structured diagnostic interview, the ADHD Rating Scale-IV, the Children’s Behavior Checklist, and structured questionnaires on perinatal risk factors, and the children underwent a neuropsychological test and were genotyped. A total of 502 children without ADHD were recruited from the community as a healthy control group. The ADHD-C children showed more severe externalizing symptoms, showed more deficits in a continuous performance test, and were more likely to have comorbid disorders. Maternal stress during pregnancy, postpartum depression, and changes in the primary caretaker during first 3 years were significantly associated with both ADHD-I and ADHD-C. The ADHD-I group was less likely to have received regular prenatal check-ups and more likely to have had postnatal medical illness than the ADHD-C group. There were no significant differences in the genotype frequencies of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) and the serotonin transporter –linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) polymorphisms between ADHD-I and ADHD-C groups. This study shows that the inattentive subtype of ADHD is different from the combined subtype in many parameters including severity of symptoms, comorbidity, neuropsychological characteristics, and environmental risk factors.     

Antineuronal antibodies in a group of children with obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome

An autoimmune hypothesis has been suggested for early onset obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. The term: Paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) has been proposed as an aetiological subtype of OCD and TS, related to a Group A beta haemolytic streptococcal (GABHS) infection that triggers an autoimmune response. Antineural antibodies have been studied and found in the sera of some patients with these disorders, and they are thought to cross-react with streptococcal and basal ganglia antigens. The present study included 32 prepubertal-onset OCD patients, 21 with TS diagnosis (some of them meeting criteria for PANDAS) and 19 normal children, all aged between 9 and 17 years. Antibodies were assayed by immunohistochemistry and immunoblot. Special attention was paid to the methodology and a high serum dilution was used to minimize non-specific binding. No anti-basal ganglia antibodies were detected by immunohistochemistry in any of the samples. Two proteins, with approximate molecular weights of 86 kDa and 55 kDa, were found in sera from 7 patients. Though the study supports the hypothesis of an autoimmune process underlying OCD or TS in some patients, further research is needed.     

伴与不伴注意缺陷多动障碍的抽动秽语综合征患儿动态脑电图的对照研究

目的　探讨伴与不伴注意缺陷多动障碍（ＡＤＨＤ） 的抽动秽语综合征（ＴＳ） 患儿间脑电图的差异。方法　对８６ 例伴与不伴ＡＤＨＤ 的ＴＳ患儿进行２４ ｈ 动态脑电图（ＡＥＥＧ） 监测。结果　伴ＡＤＨＤ的ＴＳ组（４０ 例）ＡＥＥＧ异常率为７５％ ,单纯ＴＳ组（４６ 例） 异常率为３０％ ,２ 组差异有显著性（ Ｐ＜０－０５） ;ＡＥＥＧ异常的主要表现为慢波异常以及癫痫样波。伴ＡＤＨＤ的ＴＳ组的ＡＥＥＧ 局部异常多于广泛异常,且以额叶受累多见;而单纯ＴＳ组则广泛异常多于局部异常。结论　伴与不伴ＡＤＨＤ的ＴＳ患儿在脑电生理学上存在异质性     

Impact of restless legs syndrome and iron deficiency on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children

OBJECTIVE: Increasing evidence suggests a significant comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and restless legs syndrome (RLS). Iron deficiency may underlie common pathophysiological mechanisms in subjects with ADHD plus RLS (ADHD+RLS). To date, the impact of iron deficiency, RLS and familial history of RLS on ADHD severity has been scarcely examined in children. These issues are addressed in the present study. METHODS: Serum ferritin levels, familial history of RLS (diagnosed using National Institutes of Health (NIH) criteria) and previous iron supplementation in infancy were assessed in 12 ADHD+RLS children, 10 ADHD children and 10 controls. RLS was diagnosed using NIH-specific pediatric criteria, and ADHD severity was assessed using the Conners' Parent Rating scale. RESULTS: ADHD symptom severity was higher, although not significantly, in children with ADHD+RLS compared to ADHD. The mean serum ferritin levels were significantly lower in children with ADHD than in the control group (p<0.0005). There was a trend for lower ferritin levels in ADHD+RLS subjects versus ADHD. Both a positive family history of RLS and previous iron supplementation in infancy were associated with more severe ADHD scores. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ADHD and a positive family history of RLS appear to represent a subgroup particularly at risk for severe ADHD symptoms. Iron deficiency may contribute to the severity of symptoms. We suggest that clinicians consider assessing children with ADHD for RLS, a family history of RLS, and iron deficiency.     

Diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

TOPIC: Diagnosis and treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. PURPOSE: To describe a multidimensional approach to treatment of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity and their parents. SOURCES: Review of the literature and of the author's clinical work. CONCLUSIONS: A great deal of controversy surrounds this diagnosis. The nurse psychotherapist helps children and families through the diagnostic process and into the treatment phase. Emphasis is on psychotherapy of the child and family, parent education, and attention to the child's school environment and social adjustment.     

Treating children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid epilepsy

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of common neurodevelopmental disorder often comorbid with epilepsy. There are no existing guidelines on how to manage these two conditions when they are comorbid. To identify relationship between epilepsy and ADHD and to know role of antiepileptics and safety of stimulant like methylphenidate in such conditions from existing literature, we searched articles published in clinical journals available online between 1990-2010, with these key words in medline:children, epilepsy, seizure, comorbid, ADHD, treatment. Relevant abstracts were further selected for their focus on current topic. Cross references were extracted. Finally relevant articles that included original research articles, reviews and abstracts of non-english literature were used. Children with epilepsy may manifest with symptoms of ADHD. Children with ADHD may develop epilepsy. Some antiepileptics like phenobarbitone, gabapentin, topiramate may not be helpful in controlling behavioral symptoms of ADHD. Stimulants are the main stay of pharmacotherapy for ADHD but there is risk of decreasing seizure threshold in children with comorbid epilepsy especially when their epilepsy is not well controlled. Existing evidence is not in favor of screening children with ADHD for EEG abnormality before starting stimulant therapy.     

Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Many investigators have hypothesized that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) involves structural and functional brain abnormalities in frontal-striatal circuitry. Although our review suggests that there is substantial support for this hypothesis, a growing literature demonstrates widespread abnormalities affecting other cortical regions and the cerebellum. Because there is only one report studying adults with ADHD, this summary is based on children. A key limitation of the literature is that most of the studies until recently have been underpowered, using samples of fewer than 20 subjects per group. Nevertheless, these studies are largely consistent with the most comprehensive and definitive study (Castellanos et al 2002). Moreover, studies differ in the degree to which they address the influence of medications, comorbidities, or gender, and most have not addressed potentially important sources of heterogeneity such as family history of ADHD, subtype, or perinatal complications. Despite these limitations, a relatively consistent picture has emerged. The most replicated alterations in ADHD in childhood include significantly smaller volumes in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, caudate, pallidum, corpus callosum, and cerebellum. These results suggest that the brain is altered in a more widespread manner than has been previously hypothesized. Developmental studies are needed to address the evolution of this brain disorder into adulthood.     

Gyrification differences in children and adolescents with velocardiofacial syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A pilot study

We used magnetic resonance imaging to investigate brain gyrification patterns between 19 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 9 children with velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS), and 23 control children. We found that VCFS is associated with widespread decreases in gyrification. In ADHD, we found minor differences from control children. No evidence was found for common gyrification patterns between VCFS and ADHD children.     

Examining the relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a familial risk analysis.

BACKGROUND: To use family study methodology to examine the relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. METHODS: We assessed for ADHD and OCD in the 1533 first-degree relatives of three groups of index children: those with ADHD and OCD, those with ADHD but no OCD, and matched controls with neither disorder. RESULTS: The risk for ADHD was similarly elevated in families of ADHD youth with (18.9%) and without OCD (20.1%; p = .91), and both groups had significantly higher rates of ADHD compared with controls (4.6%; p < or = .001), which was consistent with previous research showing a strong familial risk for ADHD. The risk for OCD was significantly elevated only among relatives of youth with ADHD plus comorbid OCD (13.0%) compared with controls (.5%; p < or = .001) and was consistent with previous research showing a strong familial risk for OCD. Relatives affected with ADHD had a significantly elevated risk for OCD compared with relatives unaffected by ADHD (7.4% vs. 1.3%; p < .001), suggestive of co-segregation between these disorders. There was no evidence of nonrandom mating between ADHD- and OCD-affected spouses. CONCLUSIONS: These results extend previously reported findings regarding the heritability of both ADHD and OCD and provide new evidence of a familial relationship between ADHD and pediatric OCD that best fits the hypothesis of a unique familial subtype.     

阿立哌唑治疗Tourette综合征共患注意缺陷多动障碍研究

目的探索阿立哌唑治疗Tourette综合征共患注意缺陷多动障碍患儿的疗效及安全性。方法选择Tourette综合征共患注意缺陷多动障碍患儿44例,随机分为阿立哌唑组和氟哌啶醇组,分别给予阿立哌唑和氟哌啶醇治疗12周,治疗前后采用耶鲁综合抽动严重程度量表(Yale global tic severity scale,YGTSS)和Conners(父母)症状问卷提供的多动指数标准评估患儿抽动症状及多动指数改善情况,并记录治疗过程中发生的药物副反应。结果重复测量方差分析示,对于YGTSS评分,分组主效应无统计学意义(P0.05),时间主效应、分组与时间的交互效应有统计学意义(P0.05);对于多动指数,分组主效应、时间主效应、分组与时间的交互效应均有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗12周时,两组YGTSS评分无统计学差异(P0.05),阿立哌唑组多动指数低于氟哌啶醇组(P0.01)。阿立哌唑组出现副反应者(3/22)比氟哌啶醇组(6/22)少(P0.05)。结论阿立哌唑治疗Tourette综合征共患注意缺陷多动障碍患儿的抽动症状与氟哌啶醇相当,且可一定程度减轻其多动、注意力缺陷等症状,副作用较氟哌啶醇少。     

Effects of pimozide on cognition in children with Tourette syndrome: interaction with comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Pimozide, a dopamine receptor antagonist, dopamine uptake inhibitor and L-type calcium channel blocker, is used in children suffering from Tourette syndrome (TS), but its effect on frequently comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is unknown. We have characterized the cognitive effects of pimozide and haloperidol in TS in relation to comorbid ADHD. Sixty-six consecutive outpatients with TS (DSM-III-R), ages 7–16, were randomly assigned to pimozide, haloperidol or medication-free clinical treatment and evaluated cognitively after 6 weeks. Continuous performance task (CPT) and memory search efficiency were compared across treatments. Treatment, comorbid ADHD and their interaction were significant on the CPT task. Pimozide treatment was superior to haloperidol and improved memory search efficiently over the no-drug condition.     

Anxiety modulates the relation between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder severity and working memory-related brain activity

Objectives: Individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often have heightened levels of anxiety, which has been associated with worse performance on working memory tasks. Knowledge of the neural pathways underlying the combined presence of ADHD and anxiety may aid in a better understanding of their co-occurrence. Therefore, we investigated how anxiety modulates the effect of ADHD severity on neural activity during a visuospatial working memory (VSWM) task.

Methods: Neuroimaging data were available for 371 adolescents and young adults participating in the multicentre cohort study NeuroIMAGE (average age 17.1 years). We analysed the effects of ADHD severity, anxiety severity and their interaction on-task accuracy, and on neural activity associated with working memory (VSWM trials minus baseline), and memory load (high memory load trials minus low load trials).

Results: Anxiety significantly modulated the relation between ADHD severity and neural activity in the cerebellum for the working memory contrast, and bilaterally in the striatum and thalamus for the memory load contrast.

Conclusions: We found that ADHD with co-occurring anxiety is associated with lowered neural activity during a VSWM task in regions important for information gating. This fits well with previous theorising on ADHD with co-occurring anxiety, and illustrates the neurobiological heterogeneity of ADHD.     

Antecedents of opioid dependence and personality disorder: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder

Both attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) were explored as possible antecedents of opioid dependence and personality disorder. One hundred adult opioid-dependent, treatment-seeking male inpatients were explored; an extended clinical semistructured interview to collect sociodemographic, drug use related, and clinical data and the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-IV personality disorders SCID-II were carried out. Four groups of patients, namely ADHD alone (4 patients). ADHD + CD (7 patients), CD alone (47 patients) and no ADHD/no CD (42 patients) were identified and compared with each other. The results indicate that ADHD alone does not predispose to the development of opioid dependence in male inpatients. Childhood ADHD may nevertheless be found more frequently in male opioid addicts due to its comorbidity with CD, which was identified in more than half of our sample. Patients with ADHD history seemed to go through the drug abuse career earlier and to develop more frequently histrionic and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Over half of the CD patients developed borderline and/or antisocial personality disorder; both ADHD and CD predispose significantly to the PD development. Early substance use preventive measures are necessary in children and adolescents suffering from CD and from ADHD comorbid with CD. Received: 27 September 2000 / Accepted: 30 January 2001     

Tic disorders: Administrative prevalence and co-occurrence with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a German community sample

Coexistence of tics and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has important clinical and scientific implications. Existing data on the co-occurrence of tic disorders, Tourette Syndrome (TS), and ADHD are largely derived from small-scale studies in selected samples and therefore heterogeneous. The Nordbaden project captures the complete outpatient claims data of more than 2.2 million persons, representing 82% of the regional population in 2003. Based upon the number of diagnosed cases of tic disorders, TS, and ADHD, we determined 12-months administrative prevalence rates as well as rates of co-occurrence. Both tic disorders and ADHD were diagnosed most often in the age group 7–12 years (any tic disorder: 0.8%; ADHD: 5.0%). With increasing age, the administrative prevalence difference in favor of males disappeared, with tic disorders being somewhat more frequently reported in females than males in the age groups above 30 years. The highest rate of ADHD co-occurring with tic disorders was found in adolescents (age 13–18 years, 15.1%). Tic disorders were observed in 2.3% of patients with ADHD. Administrative prevalence rates of tic disorders and TS were substantially lower compared to rates found in community-based epidemiological studies, suggesting that a large number of cases remain undetected and untreated under present conditions of routine outpatient care.     

Internet addiction and attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder symptoms in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

AimSeveral studies have reported that internet addiction (IA) is more prevalent in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the characteristics of ASD adolescents with IA are unclear. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of IA in ASD adolescents, and compare the characteristics between the IA and the non-IA groups in adolescents with ASD.MethodsThe study included 55 participants who were outpatients at Ehime University Hospital and Ehime Rehabilitation Center for Children in Japan, aged 10–19 years, diagnosed with ASD. Patients and their parents answered several questionnaires including the Young's Internet Addiction Test (IAT), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale-IV (ADHD-RS).ResultsBased on the total IAT score, 25 out of 55 participants were classified as having IA. Although there were no significant differences in AQ and Intelligence Quotient, the higher scores of ADHD symptoms in SDQ and ADHD-RS were observed in the IA group than the non-IA group. The IA group used portable games more often than the non-IA group.ConclusionThe ADHD symptoms were strongly associated with IA in ASD adolescents. More intensive prevention and intervention for IA are needed especially for the ASD adolescents with ADHD symptoms.     

Proton spectroscopy in medication-free pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: The frontal-striatal pathway has been previously implicated in the neuropathology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Hence, we used proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) to examine metabolite levels in the prefrontal cortex of children with ADHD. METHODS: Nine age- and gender-matched case-control pairs were examined, ages 7 to 16 years. A long-echo 1H-MRS scan was acquired from the right prefrontal cortex and left striatum in all subjects. Compounds that can be visualized with 1H-MRS include N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA), glutamate/glutamine/gamma-aminobutyric acid (Glx), creatine/phosphocreatine (Cr), and choline compounds (Cho). RESULTS: Frontal-striatal glutamatergic resonances were elevated in the children with ADHD as compared to healthy control subjects. No differences were noted in NAA, Cho, or Cr metabolite ratios. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that frontal-striatal Glx resonances may be increased in children with ADHD in comparison with healthy control subjects.     

The potential role of clock genes in children attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

BackgroundAttention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder and is thought to be associated with circadian system.MethodsWe performed a pathway-based study to test individual single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the overall evidence of genetic polymorphisms involved in the circadian pathway in association with children ADHD susceptibility among a Chinese population. A community-based case–control study was conducted among Chinese children, and 168 ADHD patients and 233 controls were recruited using a combination diagnosis based on the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders iv (DSM-IV) ADHD rating scale, Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham rating scale (SNAP-IV) rating scale, and semi-structured clinical interview.ResultsThe results of single-loci analyses identified that PER1 rs2518023 and ARNTL2 rs2306074 were nominally association with ADHD susceptibility (P < 0.05). Next, we applied multifactor dimensionality reduction (MDR), and classification and regression tree (CART) analyses to explore high-order gene–gene interactions among the functional SNPs to ADHD risks. The results indicated that interactions among the PER1 rs2518023, ARNTL2 rs2306074 and NR1D1 rs939347 were associated with the risk of ADHD in children. Individuals carrying the combination genotypes of the PER1 rs2518023 GG or GT, ARNTL2 rs2306074 TC or TT and NR1D1 rs939347 GA or AA displayed a significantly higher risk for ADHD than who carry the PER1 rs2518023 TT and CRY2 rs2292910 CA/CC genotypes (adjusted OR = 4.37, 95% CI = 2.16–8.85, P < 0.001).ConclusionsThese findings revealed the importance of genetic variations related to the circadian clock system to the susceptibility of children ADHD.